Response of Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.) to stress induced by different types of pollutants – testing the fluctuating asymmetry

Damage caused to pine forests by industrial pollution is observed even several decades after emissions have stopped down. A simple morphological feature – the leaf fluctuating asymmetry – was used for assessing the condition of Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris) stands growing in a heavily degraded area. In 2011, a study was performed on the developmental instability of needles in four naturally reforested Polish populations of P. sylvestris. Studies were conducted within the protective zone at a zinc smelter, a copper smelter, a cement plant and train tracks. All selected areas manifested a high extent of anthropogenic pollution‐induced environmental degradation until the end of the 90s. Currently, a reduced level of environmental pollution is recorded at these sites. Control group was a natural population of Scots pine from the region of National Park of Wielkopolska. The results confirm the usefulness of fluctuating asymmetry as a highly sensitive indicator of non‐specific stress. Also, it was shown that in areas degraded by human activity, poor condition of Scots pine persists that the stress factor has been eliminated. This tendency occurs particularly to areas contaminated by heavy metals.     

Forest fires in cork oak (Quercus suber L.) stands in Portugal

Fire and cork can be considered both the most serious problem and the most valuable resource of Portuguese forests. The existence of important areas of burned cork oak stands resulting from severe fire seasons in recent years is an environmental problem which deserves special attention. This paper makes a multidisciplinary survey of the problem of burned cork oak stands focusing on: the dimensions of the problem in Portugal, the remarkable resistance of cork oak to fire, the post‐fire management of cork oak stands, and the economic and ecological effects of fire in cork oak stands. Particular emphasis is given to knowledge gaps in this context.     

Accumulation of trace elements in the fruiting bodies of macrofungi in the Krusné Hory Mountains Czechoslovakia

The concentrations of some trace elements (Pb, Cd, Cu, Fe, Mn, Zn, Co, Ni) were determined in fruiting bodies of 20 fungal species from seven families (order Agaricales, Basidiomycetes) growing in the Krusné Hory Mountains, Czechoslovakia, where the air pollution is characterized as moderate. Samples were collected from three stands: a spruce forest, the waterlogged margin of a peat bog, and the peat bog itself. The biomass of fruiting bodies of all macrofungi was determined simultaneously. The trace element concentrations varied among trophic groups of fungi: saprophytic species (S) and those parasitic on Sphagnum (Sph) exhibited the highest concentrations, while wood-decomposing (Wd) species displayed the lowest. Several species mycorrhizal with spruce (Ms), such as Amanita umbrinolutea, Russula ochroleuca, and Xerocomus badius, also attained higher concentrations than were found for other mycorrhizal fungi. The trace element concentrations were higher in the caps than in the stems of the fungi. The fraction of trace metals retained by the biomass of fruiting bodies of fungi with respect to annual fallout is estimated at 1 0/00. Factors affecting fungal uptake of trace elements are discussed.     

Trace elements, PCBs and organochlorine pesticides in New Zealand common dolphins (Delphinus sp.)

Trace elements, polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) and organochlorine (OC) pesticide levels were determined in tissues collected from stranded and bycaught common dolphins (Delphinus sp.) from New Zealand waters between 1999 and 2005. The concentrations of mercury (Hg), selenium (Se), chromium (Cr), zinc (Zn), nickel (Ni), cadmium (Cd), cobalt (Co), manganese (Mn), iron (Fe), copper (Cu), tin (Sn), lead (Pb), arsenic (As) and silver (Ag) were determined in blubber, liver and kidney tissue. PCBs (45 congeners) and a range of OC pesticides including dieldrin, hexachlorocyclohexane (HCH) and dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane (DDT) and its metabolites DDE and DDD were determined in blubber samples. Cr and Ni were not detected in any of the samples and concentrations of Co, Sn and Pb were generally low. Concentrations of Hg ranged from 0.17 to 110 mg/kg wet weight. Organochlorine pesticides dieldrin, HCB, o,p'-DDT and p,p'-DDE were present at the highest concentrations. Sum DDT concentrations in the blubber ranged from 17 to 337 and 654 to 4430 microg/kg wet weight in females and males, respectively. Similarly, Sigma45CB concentrations ranged from 49 to 386 and 268 to 1634 microg/kg wet weight in females and males, respectively. The mean transmission of SigmaDDTs and ICES7CBs between a genetically determined mother-offspring pair was calculated at 46% and 42%, respectively. Concentrations of organochlorine pesticides determined in the present study are within similar range to those reported for Hector's dolphins (Cephalorhyncus hectori) from inshore New Zealand waters.     

Trace element accumulation in Pseudevernia furfuracea (L.) Zopf exposed in Italy's so called Triangle of Death

Trace element accumulation in the lichen Pseudevernia furfuracea (L.) Zopf was studied in the district of Acerra (province of Naples, southern Italy), one of the points forming Italy's Triangle of Death. P. furfuracea thalli, collected from Mt. Faito (province of Naples), were transplanted and exposed in bags at different sites in Acerra district, classified into three different site types (urban, rural and industrial). We aimed to test the hypothesis that P. furfuracea, when transplanted in the district of Acerra, would respond to air pollution accumulating trace elements and that element concentrations in the exposed lichens were different in relation to the three different environments, characterised by different pollution sources. Samples were exposed for six months, periodically collected and examined by ICP MS spectrometer assays to measure concentrations of 10 trace elements (Al, As, Cd, Cr, Cu, Fe, Mn, Pb, V and Zn). The exposed samples showed increases in concentrations of all the examined elements; the trace element concentrations were evaluated by calculating exposed to control (EC) ratios, for each site and each trace element, to better understand the accumulation rates. EC ratios were evaluated after 3 and 6 month exposures, at the end of spring and summer respectively: 6 month EC values were the highest. The urban sites showed EC ratios generally higher than industrial and rural; the most accumulated elements were Pb and Cu (at the urban sites), Cu and Zn (at the industrial sites), and Cu and As (at the rural sites). The chemical data were then processed using a multivariate approach (ordination, PCA) to better understand environmental gradients. Bioaccumulation data and PCA analysis showed the sampling sites separated by different trace element abundance. Trace element abundance patterns in the three site types are discussed in relation to the land use and the pollution sources.     

Determination of phytotoxicity of soluble elements in soils, based on a bioassay with lettuce (Lactuca sativa L.)

In this work the different concentrations of soluble elements in soils from natural (peridotitic soils) and anthropogenic (soils affected by a pyrite-mine spill) origin, are used to determine the phytotoxicity in lettuce (Lactuca sativa L.). The solutions are obtained from soil:water extracts (1:1), having neutral pH and high concentrations of As, Pb, Zn, Mn, Co and Ni, with values exceeding the toxic level for soil solution [Bohn HL, McNeal BL, O'Connor GA. Soil Chemistry, Wiley Interscience. Wiley & Sons, New York, 1985]. The variables evaluated are: Seed Germination (SG), Root Elongation (RE), Germination Rate (GR) and Root Necrosis (RN). The most sensitive variables in the bioassay with these solutions are GR and RN, in these cases the solution causes a reduction of 44% and 67%, respectively, in relation to control (distilled water). The test using soil-water solutions is sensitive and reproducible to determine phytotoxicity in lettuce caused by potentially pollutant elements in soils.     

The survival of salmon (Salmo salar L.) and sea trout (S. trutta L.) in fresh and saline water at high temperatures

The survival of salmon and seatrout smolts, on sudden exposure to increased temperature, has been measured under field and laboratory conditions in both fresh and salt water. Smolts are more sensitive than parr when tested in fresh water, particularly if no special care is taken to acclimate the fish to the test conditions beforehand. Salmon smolts are most sensitive to an increase in temperature when exposed simultaneously to change from fresh to sea water, though the effect is much less even after only 7 hr prior acclimation to sea water; they are most resistant when tested in 30 per cent sea water.     

Biogeochemical cycles for the chemical elements in Nymphaea odorata ait. and the aphid Rhopalosiphum nymphaeae (L.) living in Linsley Pond

A hydrogeochemical study to determine the abundance of the chemical elements in the water of Linsley Pond, North Branford, Conn., U.S.A., was initiated in 1965. As the investigation progressed, it became clear that the aquatic macrophytes, associated sediments, and the soils and rocks of the basin had to be examined chemically in order to elucidate the biogeochemical cycle of the elements in the water. This aspect of the study concerns the elemental chemical composition of Nymphaea odorata Ait. and the aphid Rhopalosiphum nymphaeae (L.) feeding on its leaves. Thirty-five elements were detected in the water but fifty-four were found in this water-lily and its aphid. Those not encountered in lake water concentrated twenty-fold were Cs, Sc, Y, La, Ce, Pr, Nd, Sm, Gd, Dy, Er, Yb, Ge, Zr, Hf, Th, As, Nb and Se. The water-lily, the aphid, the lake sediment and the soils and rocks of the basin all contained detectable quantities of the rare earths, though beyond Sm only those of even atomic number were encountered. The aphids contained more Na, Li, Cs, Ba, Zn, Al, Ga, Si, Ge, Pb, Ti, Hf, P, Bi, S, Se, Cr, Mo, I, Fe, Co, Ni, Mn, Y, La, Ce, Pr and Sm than the leaves upon which they feed. The water-lily leaves contain more Ag, Ca, Mg, Cd, Hg, B, Sn, Zr, Th, Cl, Br, Nd and Sc than the aphids. The amount of Be, Gd, Dy, Er, Yb, K, Rb, Cu, Sr, As, V and F is essentially the same in the insects as in the leaves which support them. Pertinent comparative data from other sources are also presented.     

Trace metals in the bones of scaup ducks (Aythya marila L.) wintering in Gdańsk Bay, Baltic Sea, 1982-83 and 1983-84

The concentrations of Fe, Zn, Mn, Cu, Pb, Cd, Co, Ni, Cr and Ag in 88 samples of various bones and five samples of trachea prepared from scaup ducks (Aythya marila L.) have been determined. With the exception of lead, no significant sex-related differences were observed for the concentration of metals. However, there were significant differences in the concentrations of most metals for different bones.     

Ambient levels of nitrogen dioxide (NO2) may reduce pollen viability in Austrian pine (Pinus nigra Arnold) trees--correlative evidence from a field study

A fully randomized sampling design was adopted to test whether pollen viability of Austrian pine (Pinus nigra Arnold) was impacted by NO(2) pollution. Spatial strata (500500 m each) with high (41.9-44.6 microg m(-3)) and low (15.4-21.0 microg m(-3)) NO(2) were selected from a defined population in a small area (236.5 km(2), <200 m range in elevation) in Northern Italy. Pollen viability was measured by means of the Tetrazolium (TTC) test. Analysis of variance by means of a generalised linear model showed that NO(2) was a significant factor (P=0.0425) affecting pollen viability. Within the treatment, no significant differences were detected among replicates. Within each replicate, sampling unit data were significantly different (P=0.000) and this suggested some improvement in the applied sampling design was needed. Pollen viability was significantly related to pollen germination (P<0.01) and tube length (P<0.01). This suggested a possible impact of NO(2) on the regeneration of Austrian pine in polluted environments.     

The use of Nucella lapillus (L.) transplanted in cages to monitor tributyltin (TBT) pollution

Specimens of the gastropod Nucella lapillus were transplanted from their natural habitat to sites affected by tributyltin (TBT) pollution to diverse degrees; individuals were held in cages that also included mussels as food. Subsamples were taken from the cages and the natural site at different time intervals (1, 2 and 5 months) to compare growth, imposex (a set of sexual anomalies caused by TBT) and butyltin concentrations accumulated in female tissues. Individuals in cages experienced negligible mortality and considerable growth. In addition, while the Relative Penis Size Index (RPSI, an index of imposex) remained consistent in the natural site through the experiment, it increased markedly at the implant sites; the same applies to the butyltin residues. These results are discussed to conclude that cage transplanting of N. lapillus is a suitable technique that can quickly (i.e. 1 month) detect differences in the level of TBT contamination among sites; however, extrapolation of experimental results to the field seems to require a longer exposure time (at least 5 months). Finally, the use of such an approach is deemed helpful to interpret the relationship between N. lapillus population dynamics and TBT pollution.     

Trace elements in hair: a study of residents in Darjeeling (India) and San Diego, California (U.S.A)

Trace element contents of scalp hair from randomly selected, ethnically homogeneous subjects of Darjeeling (India) were compared with those of the residents of San Diego, California (U.S.A.). The differences between mean concentrations of Ca, Mg, Cu, Na and Cd in the two groups were not significant, and the concentrations of K, Fe, Mn and Zn were significantly higher (P less than 0.01), and that of Al was significantly lower (P less than 0.01), in hair of the residents of Darjeeling. Concentrations of lead in four of the Darjeeling hair samples were very high (greater than 30 micrograms g-1) and in the remaining samples the mean concentration was similar to San diego hair samples. In two mentally retarded Darjeeling subjects, abnormally high values of aluminum (50 and 70 micrograms g-1) and iron (155 and 196 micrograms g-1) were observed. The mean aluminum concentration (2.4 micrograms g-1) in the remaining Darjeeling hair samples was significantly lower than the mean aluminum concentration (10.6 micrograms g-1) in the San Diego hair samples (P less than 0.01). The mean manganese concentration in Darjeeling hair was 20 times higher than the mean manganese content in San Diego hair samples.     

Comparison of surface roughness of Locust acacia (Robinia pseudoacacia L.) and European oak (Quercus petraea (Mattu.) Lieble.) in terms of the preparative process by planing

Effects of number of the cutters (planing knives), feed rate (operational speed) and cutting depth (biting thickness) on the surface roughness of Locust acacia (Robinia pseudoacacia L.) and European oak (Quercus petraea (Mattu.) Lieble.) were investigated on the base of the preparative differences by planing. The specimens were prepared by planing with two and four knives at 5 and 9 m/min feed rates in 1, 2 and 4 mm cutting depths. Surface roughness was measured from the radial face of each sample according to TS 930 (1989) by using Mitutoyo SJ-301 stylus scanner device. These measurements were performed perpendicular to the fibers by the sampling length of 12.5 mm at a sensitivity level of ±0.01 μm. Considering between all types of the experimental preparations, Locust acacia had the smoothest surfaces than that of European oak. Comparing the results of the surface roughness of both species, it has been obtained that the surface roughness decreases when the feed rate and the cutting depth decreases, whereas it increases when the knives on the cutter heads decreases. Therefore, it may be suggested that the perfect faces could be particularly prepared for this considered species by the greater number of the knives (four) at the slow feed rate (5 m/min) in the condition of the light cutting depth (1 mm).     

Biomass and nutrient content of sessile oak (Quercus petraea (Matt.) Liebl.) and beech (Fagus sylvatica L.) stem and branches in a mixed stand in southern Belgium

Accurate estimates of the amounts of nutrients immobilised in the organs and tissues of different tree species are of prime importance to make appropriate tree species selection and determine the harvesting regime that will ensure forest sustainability. Sixteen sessile oaks (Quercus petraea (Matt.) Liebl.) (64-129 years; stem diameters: 17-57 cm) and twelve beeches (Fagus sylvatica L.) (43-86 years; stem diameters: 9-50 cm) were destructively sampled from a mixed stand located on an acid brown soil in southern Belgium. Statistical models were developed to investigate the differences in nutrient concentrations between tree species, between aboveground tree compartments of the same species, and between tissues of the same compartment. For stem tissues, vertical concentration profiles were described using a versatile equation. Allometric equations were used to predict biomass and nutrient content of tree compartments based on tree dimensions. Broadly speaking, nutrient concentrations tended to be somewhat higher for oak compared with beech, but the amplitude and the direction of inter-species differences varied greatly, depending on the nutrient and the tree compartment. For both species, living branch nutrient concentrations tended to decrease with increasing branch diameter, except for Ca (oak) and Mg (beech). Nutrient concentrations were consistently higher in bark than in wood; this difference between tissues was quite pronounced for Ca, particularly in the case of oak. The biomass and nutrient content equations were used to investigate the effects of tree species and harvesting regime on nutrient exports at harvesting. For equivalent harvesting scenarios, beech was found to induce higher Mg exports than oak, and inversely for Ca. Assuming stand clear cutting, complete tree harvesting would increase average nutrient exports from 65% (Ca) to 162% (P) compared with a stem-only harvesting scenario. These results provide valuable information in the current context of the more intensive utilization of forest products.     

Removal of azinphos methyl by alfalfa plants (Medicago sativa L.) in a soil-free system

The objective of this study was to investigate the removal of azinphos methyl assisted by alfalfa plants, with special emphasis on the effects of this compound on some plant's physiological parameters. Hydroponic cultures of alfalfa (Medicago sativa L., var Romagnola) were employed as a model system. These cultures were exposed to a nutrient medium containing 10 mg/l of azinphos methyl. A first-order kinetic approach was used to describe the removal of azinphos methyl from the solution. After 20 days of culture, the initial amount of azinphos methyl was reduced to non-detectable levels in the presence of plants. In the absence of plants, 20% of azinphos methyl remained in the solution after 30 days of treatment. The half-life of the pesticide was reduced from 10.8 to 3.4 days in the presence of plants. The growth index of alfalfa plants exposed to azinphos methyl was negatively affected. Chlorophyll contents were reduced after 24 h of treatment and thereafter the levels were comparable to that of control plants. The peroxidase activity of alfalfa roots was not affected by the presence of azinphos methyl. In conclusion, alfalfa plants were able to survive when exposed to an effective concentration of 10 mg/l of azinphos methyl in the root zone, with some alterations on their physiological parameters.     

The effects of ply organization and loading direction on bending strength and modulus of elasticity in laminated veneer lumber (LVL) obtained from beech (Fagus orientalis L.) and lombardy poplar (Populus nigra L.)

The effects of ply organization and loading direction on bending strength and modulus of elasticity in laminated wood materials produced from 3 mm thick veneers, of beech (Fagus orientalis L.) and lombardy poplar (Populus nigra L.) placed one on top of the other in various arrangements were examined in this study. Kleiberit 303 (PVAc), a vinyl (polyvinyl acetate – PVAc) based glue was used in lamination. Eight hundred samples were prepared in order to measure oven-dry specific gravity, bending strength and modulus of elasticity values perpendicular and parallel to the glue line of a total of 10 different arrangements, eight of which have different laminated ply organizations, namely (AAAAAAA) (7A), (BBBBBBB) (7B), (ABBBBBA), (ABABABA), (AABBBAA), (AABABAA), (ABBABBA), (BABABAB), in which (A) represents beech wood and (B) represents poplar wood and the other two, which consist of solid beech and solid poplar wood in same dimensions as control samples. The samples were subjected to tests perpendicular and parallel to the glue line in accordance with the ISO 16978 standard. As a result of statistical analysis of the data obtained from the tests, the bending strength and modulus of elasticity values of solid woods both perpendicular and parallel to the glue line were observed to be smaller than those values of laminated woods made of the same species of woods. It was also observed that as contribution rate of beech in lamination increases, the bending strength and modulus of elasticity values increase.     

Uptake pathways and elimination of a nonionic surfactant in cod (Gadus morrhua L.)

The uptake and elimination of a labelled surfactant, the nonionic nonylphenol ethoxylate, was studied in cod (Gadus morrhua L.) exposed to a concentration of 5 ppm. The amount of labelled surfactant was analyzed by the scintillation counting method in various tissues from the fish. A penetration especially through the gills, but also some intestinal resorption was found. Eight hours from start a steady state condition was obtained. High concentrations were found especially in gall bladder and liver. The elimination process in clean sea water was quite rapid and after 24 h the residues     

Mercury in muscle tissue of lesser-spotted dogfish (Scyliorhinus caniculus L.) from the north-east Irish Sea.

This paper reports concentrations of mercury in muscle tissue of lesser-spotted dogfish (Scyliorhinus caniculus L.) from various locations within Liverpool Bay and the north-east Irish Sea. Concentrations of mercury in fish muscle showed distinct spatial variation, with values from the northern sectors of the Irish Sea significantly lower than those for the southern area, particularly sites in Liverpool Bay and around the mouth of the Mersey Estuary. The data support the hypothesis that there are several major populations of lesser-spotted dogfish within the study area, each of which remains quite distinct during seasonal movements. Consequently, exposure to environmental mercury is reflected in muscle concentrations of mercury. Regressions of mercury concentration against fish length showed significant relationships for the majority of sites, with the slope relating to distance from known sources of mercury contamination. Mean mercury concentrations were higher than in corresponding populations of flatfish from the same areas.     

Studies on the toxicity of copper sulphate to stone loach Noemacheilus barbatulus (L.) in hard water

The toxicity of copper sulphate to Noemacheilus barbatulus was studied for 64 days in a water of total hardness 249 mg l⁻¹ as CaCO₃. The 63-day lc₅₀ was approximately 0.25 mg Cu l⁻¹. Larger fish survived longer, and at concentrations greater than 0.29 mg l⁻¹ fish hid less during daylight. Noemacheilus surviving 0.12 mg Cu l⁻¹ for 64 days shed copper when placed in clean water for 7 days: gill, muscle, eye and vertebrae lost significant amounts of copper during this period. The opportunity to shed copper during a short period when the poison supply to their tank failed, may have allowed fish exposed to 0.49 mg l⁻¹ to live 12 days longer than expected. The sensitivity of Noemacheilus to copper, cadmium and zinc was compared with that of rainbow trout. Salmo gairdneri.