Psychotogenicity and N-methyl-D-aspartate receptor antagonism: implications for neuroprotective pharmacotherapy

PURPOSE: Study purpose was to develop a theoretical framework that will explain pharmacists' behavior relative to the provision of pharmaceutical care. The model was developed from four attitude models by testing their predictive validity relative to pharmaceutical care implementation. Four hypotheses and one research question were investigated to identify determinants of behavioral intention and behavior. METHODS: 617 community pharmacists in the state of Florida, U.S.A., were surveyed twice using mail survey methodology to collect data. The first survey assessed community pharmacists' attitude, subjective norm, perceived behavioral control, past behavior recency, self-efficacies, instrumental beliefs and affect. The second survey assessed pharmacists' behavior relative to the implementation of pharmaceutical care. After establishing reliability and validity of measures, regression analysis was used to test hypotheses and research question investigated. RESULTS: The Pharmacists' Implementation of Pharmaceutical Care (PIPC) model developed postulates that (i) behavior is directly determined by past behavior recency, behavioral intention and perceived behavioral control; (ii) psychological appraisal processes-instrumental beliefs, self-efficacies, and affect toward means-influence behavior through past behavior recency; and (iii) behavioral intention is determined by attitude, social norm and perceived behavioral control. CONCLUSIONS: The PIPC model provides a formal scientifically validated theoretical framework which can be used to design successful intervention for pharmaceutical care implementation.     

Infants' responses to facial and vocal emotional signals in a social referencing paradigm

The independent effects of facial and vocal emotional signals and of positive and negative signals on infant behavior were investigated in a novel toy social referencing paradigm. 90 12-month-old infants and their mothers were assigned to an expression condition (neutral, happy, or fear) nested within a modality condition (face-only or voice-only). Each infant participated in 3 trials: a baseline trial, an expression trial, and a final positive trial. We found that fearful vocal emotional signals, when presented without facial signals, were sufficient to elicit appropriate behavior regulation. Infants in the fear-voice condition looked at their mothers longer, showed less toy proximity, and tended to show more negative affect than infants in the neutral-voice condition. Happy vocal signals did not elicit differential responding. The infants' sex was a factor in the few effects that were found for infants' responses to facial emotional signals.     

Objective determinants of perceived social support.

Examined objective characteristics of people's social networks as determinants of the perceived availability of social support in 50 60–88 yr olds and in 71 18–35 yr old mothers of 1-yr-olds. Number of network members and frequency of contact with network members, computed separately for kin and nonkin were examined as predictors of loneliness (as measured by the UCLA Loneliness Scale), overall social support, and the 6 components of social support proposed by R. Weiss (1974). Kin were found to be more effective providers than nonkin of some aspects of social support. Network characteristics were better predictors of perceived social support for the elderly than for the mothers, but a maximum of 30% of the variance in perceived social support was attributable to the objective network characteristics in either sample. It is recommended that future research on the determinants of perceived social support consider actual interpersonal behaviors, their contexts, and personality characteristics that affect the facilitation and interpretation of supportive behaviors. (37 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Moderator variables and different types of predictability: Do you have a match?

Conducted 2 closely related experiments with 228 undergraduate students. Exp I examined the moderation of congruence between self-ratings and peer-ratings of traits following the procedure of J. M. Cheek and S. R. Briggs (see record 1983-23439-001). Exp II examined the congruence of attitudes and actual behavior and was based on M. P. Zanna et al (see record 1981-10514-001). All Ss completed a 158-item questionnaire that measured the moderator variables that were previously studied. These included self-monitoring, private self-consciousness, personal identity, and empathy. Results indicate that the 1st type of predictability (congruence) was unrelated to the 2nd. The greatest self–peer rating congruence was found among Ss who had good social communication skills. The greatest internal disposition–actual behavior congruence was found among Ss who were unwilling, unable, or both to change their behavior in response to situational demands. Being aware of, attentive to, and placing importance on the inner self was related to both types of predictability. The discussion focused on the manner in which moderator variables (especially those that concern social skills) will affect each type of predictability and the need to match moderator variables to specific types of predictability. (39 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Modeling influences in social drinking: An experimental analogue.

48 male college students classified as heavy social drinkers were assigned to 1 of 6 groups in a 3 * 2 factorial design. The 1st factor consisted of 3 modeling conditions: exposure to a model who was a heavy consumer of alcohol; a light drinking model; and a no-model control condition. For the 2nd factor, Ss engaged in a brief prior social interaction with the model who played a role that was either warm or cold in emotional quality. Modeling effects were then assessed in a laboratory wine-tasting task in which the S and the model participated together. Ss exposed to the heavy drinking model drank significantly more alcohol than Ss in the low-consumption model and no-model conditions, which did not differ from each other. The prior interaction conditions did not affect drinking behavior. Results are discussed within a theoretical framework that emphasizes the social learning determinants of drinking behavior. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The impact of past relationships on interpersonal behavior: Behavioral confirmation in the social–cognitive process of transference.

This study extended research on transference in social perception (e.g., S. M. Andersen, I. Reznik, & L. M. Manzella, 1996) into the realm of social behavior by examining behavioral confirmation (e.g., M. Snyder, 1992) in transference. Each perceiver participated in a brief conversation with a naive target participant, who either did or did not appear to resemble the perceiver's own positively or negatively regarded significant other. Trained judges rated positive affect expressed in targets' behavior. As predicted, targets expressed more positive affect in their behavior when they allegedly resembled the perceiver's own positively versus negatively toned significant other, an effect not found in the control condition. This evidence demonstrates behavioral confirmation in transference, suggesting a means by which present relationships may resemble past ones. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2011 APA, all rights reserved)     

Executive function of the hippocampus in social behavior in the rat

Bilateral lesion of the fimbria resulted in a reduction of social interdependency and agonistic behavior in male-male encounters in rats. These findings are hypothesized to be consistent with J. A. Gray's (1982) supervisor model, which assigns an executive function to the septohippocampal system. To achieve this interpretation, social behavior is described in terms of relational processes (social hypothesis, behavioral sequencing, and behavioral competition). This study focused mainly on the effects of the lesion on behavioral sequencing by studying the alterations of the predictability of the behavior of a rat in terms of the behavior of its partner.     

Effects of race on ratings of social skill.

Black and White judges rated the behavior of 12 schizophrenics participating in a comprehensive social skills training program. Results indicate that Black and White judges rated the same behavior in a different manner and are discussed in terms of how such practices could affect outcome in social skills research. (7 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

A cross-cultural study of social status markers in speech.

Recorded 20 adult male French Canadians of various social status as they read a short passage. Their voices were played to judges who rated the speakers on semantic-differential type rating scales and estimated their social status levels. Results support earlier studies in that judges could recognize social status with a level of accuracy comparable to a correlation of .80+ between estimated and actual social status. However, judges were nearly as accurate in judging social status from vocal qualities alone as when both vocal and verbal (content) aspects of speech were free to vary. This level of accuracy was entirely attributable to the ability of judges to discriminate white-collar workers as a whole from blue-collar workers as a whole. No smaller subgroups were discriminable. In a 2nd study, the same French Canadian tapes were played to 26 English-speaking college Ss who knew no French. The accuracy of these judges was on a level comparable to a correlation of about .70, suggesting that the majority of the vocal cues by which social status is discriminated are general across at least these 2 languages. (French summary) (20 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Egoistic and nonegoistic motives in social dilemmas.

Discusses research trends regarding social dilemmas and the conflict between individual and societal interest in these issues. It is suggested that most current research on social dilemmas involve behavioral, cognitive, or social approaches that reflect an egoistic bias. It is argued that this bias limits the number of types of solutions to dilemmas that psychologists investigate and that egoistically based solutions to social dilemmas are not adequate in many real-world dilemmas. It is contended that the only 2 methods of promoting cooperations that are possible from an individualistic, egoistic perspective are reducing the net costs of cooperation through material or social rewards and punishments and convincing individuals that their behavior will affect the dilemma outcome. These solutions, it is argued, are inadequate to solve many real-world dilemmas. Several nonegoistic solutions to social dilemmas, involving altruistic, group-egoistic, and moral motives, are proposed as more viable solutions to social dilemmas. (48 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Contemporary perspectives and future directions of personality and social psychology.

Conducted an empirically based study in which the judgments of experts were used to identify the theoretical/methodological structure of the field of personality and social psychology, as well as the core "interest communities" extant in these disciplines. The similarities of figures prominent in the history of the field were judged by 16 of the American Psychological Association's Division 8 (Society of Personality and Social Psychology) Fellows. Multidimensional scaling of these similarity judgments revealed 3 general dimensions along which the figures varied: synthetic vs analytic, internal vs external determinants of behavior, and prominence. An alternate view of the field was provided by a taxonomic scheme in which the figures were grouped along major ideological, substantive, and methodological lines. The following 5 contemporary interest communities were identified from the self-characterizations of the Fellows: (a) psychoanalysis and psychiatry, (b) modern personality theory, (c) measurement and individual differences, (d) sociology, and (e) social psychology. Statements of implications for future directions in the field were also obtained from Ss. (38 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

A social relations variance partitioning of dyadic behavior.

The authors investigate the relative importance of actor and interaction partner as determinants of dyadic behavior. Using the social relations model (D. A. Kenny, 1994a; D. A. Kenny & L. La Voie, 1984), the authors estimate the variance attributable to each determinant plus the reciprocity of behavioral responses from 7 studies. The authors find evidence for moderate behavioral consistency in a person's behavior across interaction partners, little or no evidence that people consistently engender the same behavioral response from others, and preliminary evidence of unique responding to particular partners. They also consider several methodological issues concerning behavioral measurement as well as the implications of the results for the study of accuracy. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Menstrual cycle and social behavior in vervet monkeys

We assessed the relationship between social behavior and the menstrual cycle in 11 adult female vervet monkeys (Cercopithecus aethiops sabaeus) living in an established, stable social group. The findings indicated that fluctuations in ovarian steroids are accompanied by behavioral changes in vervet monkeys. A significant increase in aggressive action, avoidance of social overtures, and retreats from threat occurred during the late luteal phase. However, the social environment can greatly affect behavior independent of the phase of the menstrual cycle. The 10 nondominant (or subordinate) individuals not only exhibited behavioral changes across their own menstrual cycles, but also were responsive to the dominant female's cycle. During the dominant female's late luteal phase, subordinate females significantly increased aggression and decreased social activity. Some of behavioral patterns in female vervet monkeys are therefore relatively independent of direct hormonal modulation and support the contention of the dominant female as the driving force for behavioral changes related to aggression and social interaction. The differential effect of hormones and social status and other environmental factors on behavior has not been critically evaluated in human studies of the premenstrual syndrome. The present study suggests that it is important to assess which behavioral patterns in women are hormonally mediated and which are dependent on the environment.     

Group climate as a factor in the relevance and accuracy of social perception.

"Twenty-eight groups of five or four graduate students each, controlled for sex, education, and acquaintance were assigned to congenial or noncongenial group climates." The accuracy of social perception as a function of the "climate" of social interaction was studied. "Individuals in congenial groups were significantly more accurate in perceiving task oriented behavior of their group than were individuals in noncongenial groups… . Individuals in noncongenial groups were not more accurate in perceiving the interpersonal relations in the groups than were individuals in congenial groups." Other findings on accuracy of perception are reported. "It is concluded that social climates can predictably affect the perception of task-oriented behavior, but that further research on the relationships among social climate, ego-oriented behavior, and accuracy in social perception is necessary." 24 references. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Explaining social behavior.

Although over the past century psychology has gained some understanding of human capacities like perception, memory, and learning, considerably less progress has been made in understanding social behavior. The roots of this problem lie in the fact that the theoretical and methodological approaches historically taken by psychology are more suited to investigating capacities than they are to studying social behavior. Social behavior will only be understood through taking an approach that takes full account of the social nature of humans and the social fabric within which they act. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Complex adaptive systems in the behavioral and social sciences.

This article examines applications of complexity theory within the behavioral and social sciences. Specific attention is given to the fundamental characteristics of complex adaptive systems (CAS)—such as individuals, groups, and societies—including the underlying structure of CAS, the internal dynamics of evolving CAS, and how CAS respond to their environment. Examples drawn from psychology, sociology, economics, and political science include attitude formation, majority-minority relations, social networks, family systems, psychotherapy, norm formation, organizational development, coalition formation, economic instabilities, urban development, the electoral process, political transitions, international relations, social movements, drug policy, and criminal behavior. The discussion also addresses the obstacles to implementing the CAS perspective in the behavioral and social sciences and implications for research methodology. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

How do self-attributed and implicit motives differ?

Repeated attempts have been made in the past 35 years to obtain self-report measures of motives originally identified in associative thought. Measures of the same motive obtained in these two ways seldom correlate significantly with each other and relate to different classes of behavior. Recent evidence is summarized showing that implicit motives, derived from stories written to pictures, combine generally with activity incentives to affect behavior, whereas self-attributed motives, derived from self-reports, combine generally with social incentives to affect behavior. Hence, implicit motives generally sustain spontaneous behavioral trends over time because of the pleasure derived from the activity itself, whereas the self-attributed motives predict immediate responses to structured situations because of the social incentives present in structuring the situation. Implicit motives represent a more primitive motivational system derived from affective experiences, whereas self-attributed motives are based on more cognitively elaborated constructs. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

A cognitive–social learning model of social-skill training.

Explores the purposes, methods, major findings, and future directions of social-skill training research with children from the perspective of a cognitive–social learning explanation of behavior change. Social-learning principles are used to provide both an explanatory framework and a potential technology for social-skill training methodology. Attention is devoted to conceptualizing skill-training methods in terms of theoretically derived variables and components as well as formal properties of training. Findings from empirical research are reviewed with respect to important or promising variables, their hypothesized function in behavior change, and their demonstrated effects on children's social behavior. Current and future research trends are discussed in light of the proposed model and available empirical evidence. (3 p ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Cognitive efficacy across the life span: Introduction to the special series.

A brief background and the rationale for examining personal beliefs of efficacy and control as related to adulthood cognition and memory are presented in this introduction to the special series. The research presented in the series draws on theory and research from several fields, including personality and social psychology, child development, and social learning and cognition. Although particular emphasis is placed on the self-efficacy construct (A. Bandura; see record 1977-25733-001) and its utility in studying cognitive behavior in adults, this introduction also highlights related work on achievement behavior in children (e.g., C. S. Dweck, 1975, see also PA, Vol 74:8696; D. H. Schunk, see PA, Vols 65:8787 and 69:1968). The series comprises four empirical articles and one conceptual commentary. In the commentary, Bandura argues that self-efficacy judgments are powerful determinants of, yet are also determined by, human cognition, affect, and behavior. It is this theoretical framework that guided the research presented in this series. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)