Information system development activities and inquiring systems: an integrating framework

This article presents a framework that maps information system development (ISD) activities on systems for the creation of knowledge. This work addresses the relevant and persisting problem of improving the chances of ISD success. The article builds upon previous research on knowledge aspects of ISD, abandoning the idea of a monolithic approach to knowledge and presenting a pluralistic approach based on the idea that different inquiring systems can support micro-level ISD activities. The article is divided into two parts. The first part presents the theoretical development of the framework based on ISD literature and on Churchman's (1971) inquiring systems. The second part presents the use of the framework in an ISD project. The case is used to show the applicability of the framework and to highlight the advantages of this approach. The main theoretical implication is that the framework provides a new way to see the development of a system in terms of the knowledge created in the process. The main practical implication of the framework is that it improves the managers' ability to guide ISD activities as knowledge activities embedded in a knowledge process, a crucial element in development projects.     

Can the case for CASE technology be advanced by Process Improvement?

Findings of a case study that focused on understanding how software development proceeded in a small Information Systems Department (ISD) located within a major public sector service are presented. The observations collected relate to a period prior to, during and after the introduction of a CASE (Computer Aided Software Engineering) tool. They are based on a combination of minutes from quality circle meetings, interviews and regular on-site observations by the first author. The study used a framework loosely based on SEI's CMM model to characterize the state of practice before and after the introduction of the tool and to assess process improvement.Prior to the introduction of the first CASE tool a typical ISD software development task was a standalone single reporting application. The software development process model consisted simply of requirements acquisition and program development. Both these activities for a particular application were carried out by an individual developer within a few months. The former activity involved the client/user, with the level of participation dependent on the developer. Similarly, program development varied from one developer to another, with most effort being expended on coding and testing. Not surprisingly, maintenance was locked to the original developer.A decision that ISD should develop larger and more complex applications triggered the purchase of a CASE tool. Typically, the larger applications would be developed by a team of about five people over a period of twelve or more months. The introduction of CASE tools, first Case Designer 5.1 then Designer 2000, had a marked effect on the working practices of ISD. Specifically two more stages were introduced into the development activity: designing via an entity-attribute relationship model and validation via rapid prototyping; and greater attention was paid to the management of testing and fault reporting.The paper explores whether the benefits accrued by ISD can be attributed to the CASE tool, the changes in work practices, or a combination of both.     

Requirement-oriented risk management for incremental software development

In incremental software development (ISD) functionalities are delivered incrementally and requirements keep on evolving across iterations. The requirements evolution involves the addition of new dependencies and conflicts among functional and non-functional requirements along with changes in priorities and dependency weights. This, in turn, demands refactoring the order of development of system components to minimize the impact of these changes. Neglecting the non-functional constraints in the software development process exposes it to risks that may accumulate across several iterations. In this research work, we propose a risk management framework for ISD processes that provides an estimate of risk exposure for the project when functional features are frozen while ignoring the associations with non-functional requirements. Our framework proposes suitable risk reduction strategies that work in tandem with the risk assessment module. We also provide a tool interface for our risk management framework.

     

Individual attitude toward improvisation in information systems development

In the area of information systems development (ISD) the traditional approaches to developing innovative projects, which are historically characterised by top-down, meticulously planned procedures, may not allow the effective handling of the emergent and continuously evolving needs of users. This article investigates the role of improvisation in addressing the shortcomings of traditional approaches to ISD in the fulfilment of the user's need for the maximisation of IS effectiveness. Prior research on software engineering and human–computer interaction (HCI) has focused considerable attention on the need for a shift in the developer's attitude in dealing with contingencies departing from the original plan, while less emphasis has been placed on the factors that may augment the incidence of the attitude towards extemporaneous action (i.e. improvisation). In an attempt to fill this gap, we theoretically analyse the antecedents of individual attitude toward improvisation, grounding our theoretical framework on the ISD domain.     

A measurement framework for object-oriented software testability

Testing is an expensive activity in the development process of any software system. Measuring and assessing the testability of software would help in planning testing activities and allocating required resources. More importantly, measuring software testability early in the development process, during analysis or design stages, can yield the highest payoff as design refactoring can be used to improve testability before the implementation starts.

This paper presents a generic and extensible measurement framework for object-oriented software testability, which is based on a theory expressed as a set of operational hypotheses. We identify design attributes that have an impact on testability directly or indirectly, by having an impact on testing activities and sub-activities. We also describe the cause-effect relationships between these attributes and software testability based on thorough review of the literature and our own testing experience. Following the scientific method, we express them as operational hypotheses to be further tested. For each attribute, we provide a set of possible measures whose applicability largely depends on the level of details of the design documents and the testing techniques to be applied. The goal of this framework is twofold: (1) to provide structured guidance for practitioners trying to measure design testability, (2) to provide a theoretical framework for facilitating empirical research on testability.     

Information systems development as emergent socio-technical change: a practice approach

Many information systems development (ISD) initiatives fail to deliver the expected benefits. An important percentage of these are the result of social and organizational factors, not simply technical failures. This paper explores the dynamics of these social and organizational factors to better understand the causes of success and failure. Based on data from a detailed case analysis of an ISD project, the paper depicts the ISD process as an emergent and dynamic one, characterized by continuous local adaptations. The paper ends with a proposal of a feedback-rich framework, based on a practice view of socio-technical change that offers theoretical insights and practical heuristics to system developers and project managers.     

An Exploration of Impact of Cognitive Elaboration on Learning in ISD Projects

Stakeholder learning has been considered crucial for effective participation and the success of information system development (ISD). However, little guidance has been offered as an operational method to facilitate learning in ISD settings. We argue that “cognitive elaboration” (CE) is a helpful strategy for developing effective learning in client–developer interactions in ISD efforts. Two types of learning are investigated: model-building (MB) and model-maintenance (MM). The current study investigated whether CE performed by stakeholders themselves in client–developer interaction led to their MB rather than MM learning. In addition, an alternative hypothesis has been explored: whether mere communication activities may induce learning. Fifty individuals in seven ongoing software development projects in four organizations were examined. For each project, two meetings in which clients and developers participated were observed. The empirical results demonstrated that stakeholders in an ISD process who have engaged in CE themselves are more likely to experience MB learning; and that mere communication does not account for MB learning. An insignificant link between CE and MM learning was found. This study deepens our understanding about IS–user interactions. Limitations of the current research and implications for future research are discussed.     

Towards a distinctive body of knowledge for Information Systems experts: coding ISD process knowledge in two IS journals

Abstract.  This paper introduces the idea of coding a practically relevant body of knowledge (BoK) in Information Systems (IS) that could have major benefits for the field. In its main part, the paper focuses on the question if and how an underlying body of action-oriented knowledge for IS experts could be distilled from the IS research literature. For this purpose the paper identifies five knowledge areas as the most important parts for an IS expert's BoK. Two of these are claimed as distinct areas of competence for IS experts: IS application knowledge and IS development (ISD) process knowledge. The paper focuses particularly on ISD process knowledge because it allows the organizing of practically relevant IS knowledge in an action-oriented way. The paper presents some evidence for the claim that a considerable body of practically relevant IS process knowledge might, indeed, exist, but also notes that it is highly dispersed in the IS literature. It then argues that the IS research community should take stock of this knowledge and organize it in an action-oriented way. Based on results from prior work it proposes a four-level hierarchical coding scheme for this purpose. In order to test the idea of coding action-oriented knowledge for IS experts, the paper reports the results of a coded literature analysis of ISD research articles published from 1996 to 2000 in two leading IS journals – Information Systems Journal and MIS Quarterly. The results suggest that ISD approaches form a useful framework for organizing practically relevant IS knowledge.     

基于度量的软件生产线管理研究

软件生产线是一种全新的软件开发方式,生产线的管理作为三大基本活动之一直接影响生产线实践。从软件度量角度出发,根据GQ(I) M模型,提出了基于度量的软件生产线管理框架,并定义了管理活动中需要跟踪的度量元,这对生产线管理活动的有效实施有积极的指导意义。     

A Framework for Integrating Non-Functional Requirements into Conceptual Models

The development of complex information systems calls for conceptual models that describe aspects beyond entities and activities. In particular, recent research has pointed out that conceptual models need to model goals, in order to capture the intentions which underlie complex situations within an organisational context. This paper focuses on one class of goals, namely non-functional requirements (NFR), which need to be captured and analysed from the very early phases of the software development process. The paper presents a framework for integrating NFRs into the ER and OO models. This framework has been validated by two case studies, one of which is very large. The results of the case studies suggest that goal modelling during early phases can lead to a more productive and complete modelling activity.       

Effective coordination in the software process - historical perspectives and future directions

A critical factor in delivering quality software products is the quality of the software process. Software development is characterized by its multi-party activity (MPA), and a major challenge in managing the software process is the coordination of its constituent activities, resources and people. In this paper, we review approaches and techniques for managing multi-party activity in the software process in terms of their originating domain and the coordination features they address. Malone and Crowston's framework of coordination dependencies is adopted to consider common dependencies between activities and to classify the different approaches that have been taken to their management in software engineering. Some observations are made regarding strategies for achieving effective coordination and on areas for further investigation.     

Multi-metaphor method: organizational metaphors in information systems development

Abstract.  Conventional methods have been criticized for their positivist philosophy and for either ignoring the organizational context of information systems development (ISD) or using only a simplistic, machine-based conceptual model of organizations. We have developed an approach to enable systems developers to use a richer view of organizations and a more interpretive approach. Multi-Metaphor Method (MMM) supports developers via a range of metaphors as cognitive structuring devices to understand an organization so that developers can learn to move between different ways of 'reading' the social context in which ISD occurs. We explain the rationale and theoretical underpinnings of MMM and then discuss our action research to investigate the viability and relevance of MMM during ISD practice. We show how the developers' use of organizational metaphors via MMM did not just enable rich conceptualizations of the client organizations but also influenced the ISD process and final product. We review the learning outcomes and discuss the implications for systems development practice of our research.     

Information system development agility as organizational learning

Information System Development (ISD) agility is concerned with why and how ISD organizations sense and respond swiftly as they develop and maintain Information System applications. We outline a theory of ISD agility that draws upon a model of IT innovation and organizational learning. The theory adopts March's concepts of exploration and exploitation to investigate agility in the context of ISD organizations. Depending on their learning focus, ISD organizations make choices as to what sensing and responding swiftly means. This is reflected in how they value speed in relation to other ISD process goals, including quality, cost, risk and innovative content. The paper examines two specific Research Propositions: (1) ISD organizations locate themselves into different innovation regimes with respect to their need for exploration and exploitation, and (2) their perceptions of agility differ in those regimes as reflected in their process goal priorities. We validate these propositions through an empirical investigation of changes in ISD organizations' process goals and innovation practices over a period of over 4 years (1999–2003), during which time they shied away from exploration to exploitation while innovating with Internet computing. These ISD organizations viewed agility differently during the studied time periods as reflected in how they traded innovative content or speed vis-à-vis the other process goals of cost, risk, and product quality. In conclusion, this paper discusses implications for future research on agility in ISD organizations.     

软件过程的模型化研究

由于软件开发组织不能很好地定义和管理其软件过程，以致在实际开发过程中产生诸多问题。在对传统开发过程分析的基础上构造了一个有效可行的过程模型，即生命周期分阶段、每个阶段进行多次受控迭代、工作流活动有计划进行，并根据CMM(Capability Maturity Model)标准对软件过程进行了形式化描述。最后给出了对抽象模型进行重用和剪裁再工程的一般原则，从而能根据不同需求制定合适的开发过程来指导软件开发。     

W4H:一个面向软件部署的技术分析框架

部署是软件生命周期中的一个重要环节,是软件生产的后期活动,通过配置、安装和激活等活动来保障软件制品的后续运行.为了系统地了解软件部署的现状和最新进展,建立了一个多侧面、细粒度的分析框架——W4H,以对该领域的主要研究工作和系统工具进行概括分析.该框架从软件部署的概念和面对的问题空间出发,由5个侧面、12个维度构成,覆盖了软件部署方法中主体、客体、适用范围、方式策略和过程支持能力等多个方面.基于W4H分析框架,对当前具有代表性的软件部署方法与技术进行分析和总结.案例研究结果表明,该分析框架能够对软件部署方法与技术进行较为全面的分析,对软件系统部署方法和技术的选择及开发具有重要的指导意义.     

Analysis of worker strategies: A comprehensive understanding for the prevention of work related musculoskeletal disorders

By documenting the strategies developed by food processing workers to manage their musculoskeletal pain and discomfort in order to remain on the job, the present article seeks to increase awareness of a different “way of approaching” WMSDs inspired by the ergonomic approach centred on work activity analysis. Based on a mixed methods approach, an ergonomic work activity study combined with a multiple case study was conducted. Sixteen female seafood-processing workers were followed up during two consecutive work seasons using a range of interviews as well as observations of work activity throughout the entire study. A large variety of musculoskeletal pain management strategies developed by those workers to remain on the job were identified. This identification and the process of categorizing the strategies led to the development of a framework for studying worker strategies. The mixed methods approach made it possible to better pinpoint and understand obstacles to the development of workplace strategies and then identify avenues for change to improve working conditions.Relevance to industryThe framework constitutes a valuable contribution for the prevention of WMSDs by representing a methodological tool for documenting worker strategies. Very few tools of this kind are currently available for practitioners and researchers. In becoming aware of the existence of such coping strategies, companies can gain a better understanding of the difficulties workers have to cope with.     

Analysing ISD performance using narrative networks,routines and mindfulness

ContextWhile the ISD process and in particular Requirement Elicitation has been defined as a collaborative social interaction, visualisations fail to accurately capture the multifaceted nature of the social process. Instead, ISD visualisations focus on presenting a more mechanical/technical perspective, ultimately restricting an opportunity to better analyse the process.ObjectiveWith particular focus on Requirements Elicitation this study utilises the narrative network technique to visualise the ISD process as a live routine with the aim to detail the ideal and actual aspects of ISD. The ideal aspect consists of the abstract, generalised understandings of the human actors regarding enacting a routine. Being a live routine, the reality is that adjustments/variations are a common occurrence and need to be taken into account. Enabling the opportunity to identify patterns of action within the routine, the study also incorporates organisational mindfulness to provide further social analysis of these patterns of action.MethodIn light of the lack of theoretical maturity around the viewing of an ISD process as a ‘live routine’, this exploratory research sought to build theory using a single instrumental case study spanning over 3 years (several ISD projects) and a variety of methods (e.g. workshop, experiment).ResultsVisualising the ISD process as a live routine it was possible to identify a number of patterns of action. These patterns were triangulated against the organisational mindfulness analysis of the case data to highlight underlying mindless behaviours. A rule was then implemented (experimentally) during the first iteration of a new ISD project and notable improvements in the ISD process were observed. Furthermore, the knock on organisational impact of the experimental implementation of the rule is also examined.ConclusionFrom a practitioner perspective the study provides an alternative method for analysing the ISD process of an organisation and highlights the benefits of observing the ISD process as a live routine. From an academic perspective, contributions are made to both the ISD and Organisational body of knowledge.     

Situational method engineering: combining assembly-based and roadmap-driven approaches

Because the engineering situation of each information system development (ISD) project is different, engineering methods need to be adapted, transformed or enhanced to satisfy the specific project situation. Contributions, in the field of situational method engineering (SME), aim at providing techniques and tools allowing to construct project-specific methods instead of looking for universally applicable ones. In addition to the engineering method tailoring, necessary to fit the project situation, a customization of the engineering method for each engineer participating in the project is also required. Such a configuration allows a better understanding of the method by focusing on guidelines related to the project engineer’s daily tasks. It also increases his/her involvement in the ISD method realization. To achieve this twofold objective (ISD method tailoring and customization), we propose a framework for SME combining an assembly-based approach for project-specific method construction and a roadmap-driven approach for engineer-specific method configuration. The first step of our process provides support to build a new method that is most suitable for the current ISD project situation, whereas the second step aims at choosing the most adapted path (roadmap) to satisfy the requirements of a particular project engineer within the project-specific method. The two core elements of our SME framework are the method chunks repository and the reuse frame. The former concerns reusable method components definition and storage whereas the latter deals with the characterization of the project situation and the project engineer’s profile. In this paper we start first by presenting our SME framework and its core elements: the method chunk repository and the reuse frame. Then we show how to take advantage of them through our two-step process combining assembly-based method construction and roadmap-driven method configuration.