Agency, communion, and well-being: Extending Helgeson's (1994) model.

V. S. Helgeson (1994) offered a promising model to explain sex differences in well-being. Three meta-analyses of gender research relevant to this model are provided along with an empirical investigation of the relations between agency and communion, unmitigated agency and unmitigated communion, and self- and peer reports of well-being and distress in a sample of 201 college students. The results extended Helgeson's model by showing that agency and communion can be assessed at the level of interests and role behaviors and that the association of agentic traits with well-being may be inflated by self-reports. Results also point to problems in distinguishing trait measures of agency from unmitigated communion and communion from unmitigated agency. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Implications of agency and communion for patient and spouse adjustment to a first coronary event

The present study examined the effects of agency and communion on psychological adjustment to a 1st coronary event. Patients were interviewed about agency and communion and psychological adjustment in the hospital shortly before discharge (Time 1) and then reinterviewed along with spouses in their homes 3 months after discharge (Time 2). It was hypothesized that the extreme agentic orientation (unmitigated agency) and the extreme communal orientation (unmitigated communion) would be associated with poor adjustment for patients and spouses but that agency would promote self adjustment and communion would promote partner adjustment. In general, results confirmed predictions. It was suggested that the most distressed couples consist of a patient high in unmitigated agency and a spouse high in unmitigated communion. Although patients in such couples did not evidence the most distress, spouses did.     

Distinctions of unmitigated communion from communion: self-neglect and overinvolvement with others

The authors sought to distinguish unmitigated communion, a focus on others to the exclusion of the self, from communion, a positive caring orientation toward others. Across four studies, the authors showed that unmitigated communion and communion are correlated, but that unmitigated communion is distinct from communion in terms of a negative view of the self, turning to others for self-evaluative information, and psychological distress. They also sought to explain the relation of unmitigated communion to distress. It was found that unmitigated communion individuals' reliance on others for self-esteem leads to overinvolvement with others and a neglect of the self, which, in turn, account for the relation of unmitigated communion to distress.     

Relation of agency and communion to well-being: Evidence and potential explanations.

There are pervasive sex differences in psychological and physical well-being, many of which can be linked to the differential socialization of men and women. Numerous studies have linked psychological masculinity and femininity to well-being. In the present article, this literature is explained by focusing on the specific personality traits captured by conventional measures of masculinity and femininity: agency (focus on self and forming separations) and communion (focus on others and forming connections), respectively. Both agency and communion are required for optimal well-being (D. Bakan, 1966); when one exists in the absence of the other (unmitigated communion or unmitigated agency), however, negative health outcomes occur. Research that is consistent with this idea is presented, and the processes by which unmitigated agency and unmitigated communion affect well-being are explored. These processes involve control, social support, and health behavior. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Gender-linked personality traits predict mental health and functional status following a first coronary event.

Three gender-linked traits were examined with respect to adjustment to a coronary event: agency, a focus on the self, communion, a focus on others; and unmitigated communion, an extreme focus on others to the exclusion of the self. Participants (n ?=?65) were interviewed 1 week and 4 months after a 1st coronary event. Hypotheses were that agency should predict improved health, communion should be unrelated to health, and unmitigated communion should predict worse health over time. Outcomes included depression, anxiety, and well-being (as measured by the Profile of Mood States; D. McNair, M. Lorr, & L. Droppleman, 1971); mental and physical functioning (SF-36; J. E. Ware, K. K. Snow, M. Kosinski, & B. Gandek, 1993); and cardiac symptoms. Results confirmed hypotheses. In addition, unmitigated communion was linked with poor health behavior and negative social interactions, which partly explained the link of unmitigated communion with depression and cardiac symptoms. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Relational identity theory: A systematic approach for transforming the emotional dimension of conflict.

Emotions are a vital dimension in conflicts among nation-states and communities affiliated by common ethnic, economic, or political interests. Yet the individuals most responsible for managing such conflicts—heads of state, CEOs, intellectual or religious leaders—are often blind to the psychological forces affecting their interests. During 20 years of international research, consulting, and teaching, I have developed a program for teaching thought leaders how to apply psychological principles to achieve their aims while also reducing negative outcomes such as violence, social upheaval, and economic displacement. In this article, I present relational identity theory (RIT), a theoretical and intellectual framework I have originated to help people understand and deal with key emotional dimensions of conflict management. I argue that national and communal bonds are essentially tribal in nature, and I describe how a tribe's unaddressed relational identity concerns make it susceptible to what I term the tribes effect, a rigidification of its relational identity. I provide strategies based on RIT for mitigating the tribes effect and thus enhancing global security. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Meaning making, uncertainty reduction, and the functions of autobiographical memory: A relational framework.

Three interrelated propositions are used to formulate a conceptual framework for understanding how the widely reported functions of autobiographical memory (a.m.)—the self, social, and directive functions—are related, complementary, and purposive. The existential literature provides a structure of meaningful relationships among various existential elements that are represented in a.m. It is argued that humans are meaning-makers driven by the need to make and understand relations within socially constructed realities. Human agency suggests that the process of self-reflection is a distinctly human core property of agency; moreover, the process of self-reflection is imbued with uncertainty. The social–cognitive literature suggests that humans seek relational coherence and meaning-ness, and strive to reduce uncertainty in their relational structures. Thus, it is suggested that the a.m. functions interact and support one another through relational frameworks such that a consistent and coherent life story can be created and maintained. Implications of this research are provided. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Masculinity, femininity, and androgyny viewed and assessed as distinct concepts.

Evaluated (a) the equivalence of the scales of the short Bem Sex-Role Inventory (BSRI) and the Extended Personal Attributes Questionnaire (EPAQ), (b) the construct validity of the short BSRI and EPAQ as measures of well-being, (c) the validity of the concept of androgyny as an intrinsically interactive (rather than simply additive) concept, and (d) the utility and meaning of 2 special EPAQ measures—unmitigated agency and unmitigated communion. 172 college students participated. The short BSRI and EPAQ were empirically interchangeable when placed in a multitrait–multimethod matrix and 2 extrinsic convergent validation rectangles. A hierarchical multiple-regression analysis with interaction terms obtained with the Differential Personality Questionnaire provided only partial support for masculinity and femininity as measures of psychological well-being and no support for the significance of androgyny treated as an interaction of masculinity and femininity. Unmitigated agency and communion did not show the expected negative correlations with the mutual mitigation (interaction) of masculinity and femininity. (45 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Relational Integration, Inhibition, and Analogical Reasoning in Older Adults.

The difficulty of reasoning tasks depends on their relational complexity, which increases with the number of relations that must be considered simultaneously to make an inference, and on the number of irrelevant items that must be inhibited. The authors examined the ability of younger and older adults to integrate multiple relations and inhibit irrelevant stimuli. Young adults performed well at all but the highest level of relational complexity, whereas older adults performed poorly even at a medium level of relational complexity, especially when irrelevant information was presented. Simulations based on a neurocomputational model of analogical reasoning, Learning and Inference with Schemas and Analogies (LISA), suggest that the observed decline in reasoning performance may be explained by a decline in attention and inhibitory functions in older adults. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The effects of mediator rewards and suggestions upon negotiations.

Investigated the effects that 2 mediation techniques—rewarding negotiator concessions and suggesting concessions—have upon a negotiator's bargaining and outcomes. 170 male undergraduates served as the negotiator and opposing negotiator while a confederate acted as the mediator in 4 separate wage negotiations. Results show that (a) mediator rewards result in larger negotiator total concessions, more negotiator–opponent agreements, and higher joint outcomes than do no rewards; (b) mediator suggestions produce larger initial concessions than do no suggestions; and (c) mediator rewards and suggestions interact, in that each technique is more potent in the absence of the other. (12 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

What we think we do (to each other): How personality can bias behavior schemas through the projection of if–then profiles.

People's knowledge about others includes not only person schemas about the typical traits of others but also behavior schemas about the likely interpersonal consequences of different behaviors. In this article, it is argued that perceiver effects can be interactive at the level of behavior schemas. A person's own personality configuration of if–then responses in social interactions (Mischel & Shoda, 1995) may contribute to that person's beliefs about the meaning and impact of relational behaviors more generally. In consequence, people who experience strong (or weak) responses to behaviors that vary along a particular trait dimension, such as warmth–coldness, may expect others to experience similarly strong (or weak) responses to those same kinds of behaviors. In 3 studies, people who were high in trait communion expected others to respond more strongly to behaviors that varied in warmth–coldness than did people who were low in trait communion, and people who were low in trait agency expected others to respond more strongly to behaviors that varied in assertiveness–unassertiveness than did people who were high in trait agency. Studies 2 and 3 provided evidence that participants' behavior schemas were based on assumptions derived from their own if–then personality profiles. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2011 APA, all rights reserved)     

The influential role of relational messages in group interaction.

Relational communication is often neglected in group interaction research; this study argues for a need to refocus our efforts on the relational dimension of group communication. Specifically, this article uses the Interaction Process Analysis (IPA) coding scheme to investigate implications of the relational communication model. Using sequences of talk in breast cancer support group interaction, the authors examine how task messages preceding and following relational messages in conjunction with the relational messages accomplish different relational (and task) goals. Results confirm earlier claims that relational influence stems from both task and relational messages. An examination of the overlapping nature of task and relational dimensions of communication, as well as the multidimensional nature of relational messages, is likewise explored. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Relationship-specific identification and spontaneous relationship maintenance processes.

Attractive alternative partners pose a relational threat to people in romantic relationships. Given that people are often limited in their time and energy, having the capacity to effortlessly respond to such relational threats is extremely useful. In 4 studies, we explored how people's identity in terms of their romantic relationship—their relationship-specific identity—affects their relationship-protective behaviors. We predicted that once a relationship becomes a part of one's sense of self, relationship maintenance responses are exhibited in a relatively fluid, spontaneous manner. In Study 1, we assessed the convergent and divergent validity of relationship-specific identification, demonstrating how it is associated with other relationship constructs. In Study 2, we found that less identified participants mentioned their relationship less than those high in relationship-specific identification, but only when interacting with an attractive member of their preferred sex. In Study 3, using a dot-probe visual cuing task, we found that when primed with an attractive member of their preferred sex, those low in relationship-specific identification gazed longer at attractive preferred-sex others compared to those high in relationship-specific identification. In Study 4, we found that relationship-specific identification was associated with relationship survival 1–3 years after the initial assessment. The present results demonstrate that relationship-specific identification predicts relatively spontaneous, pro-relationship responses in the face of relational threat. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2011 APA, all rights reserved)     

A Critique of Relational Psychoanalysis.

Psychoanalysis today is largely a psychology of consciousness: Post- and neo-Freudians form a marginalized community within North America in comparison to contemporary relational and intersubjective theorists, who emphasize the phenomenology of lived conscious experience, dyadic attachments, affective attunement, social construction, and mutual recognition over the role of insight and interpretation. Despite the rich historical terrain of theoretical variation and advance, many contemporary approaches have displaced the primacy of the unconscious. Notwithstanding the theoretical hairsplitting that historically occurs across the psychoanalytic domain, one is beginning to see with increasing force and clarity what S. Mitchell and L. Aron (1999) referred to as the emergence of a new tradition, namely, relational psychoanalysis. Having its edifice in early object relations theory, the British middle school and American interpersonal traditions, and self psychology, relationality is billed as "a distinctly new tradition" (Mitchell & Aron, 1999, p. x). What is being labeled as the American middle group of psychoanalysis (C. Spezzano, 1997), relational and intersubjective theory have taken center stage. It may be argued, however, that contemporary relational and intersubjective perspectives have failed to be properly critiqued from within their own school of discourse. The scope of this article is largely preoccupied with tracing (a) the philosophical underpinnings of contemporary relational theory, (b) its theoretical relation to traditional psychoanalytic thought, (c) clinical implications for therapeutic practice, and (d) its intersection with points of consilience that emerge from these traditions. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

On perspectives, theories, models, and friends: A reply to the relationalists.

The authors respond to the "relational" issue of Psychoanalytic Psychology (PP; Vol. 12, No. 1) and support Karol Marshall's remonstration about the need to clarify what exactly the category relational refers to. It is noteworthy that in this issue of PP the relational thinkers do not engage the specific topics of our essay. The author's article attempted to review the most comprehensive relational thinkers of that time across theoretical variables. Relationalists have begun to spell out the technical consequences of their perspective in recent discussions of neutrality, authority, and self-disclosure, among other issues. This is a useful trend in the relational literature, and we hope it continues. We are concerned, however, that the relational thinkers writing in this issue tend to dismiss the contributions to PP 12(1) because the perspectives presented there did not satisfy the relationalist vision of how scientific exchange should be undertaken. Although we feel that it is important for emerging points of view to be able to elaborate assumptions, constructs, and principles within their own framework and in their own way, constructive dialogue, much less a comparative analysis of the contributions and limitations of different points of view, requires that we have some common ground. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The pushes and pulls of close relationships: Attachment insecurities and relational ambivalence.

Attachment theorists have emphasized that attachment-anxious individuals are ambivalent in their relational tendencies, wishing to be close to their relationship partners but also fearing rejection. Here we report 6 studies examining the contribution of attachment anxiety and experimentally induced relational contexts (both positive and negative) to explicit and implicit manifestations of (a) attitudinal ambivalence toward a romantic partner and (b) motivational ambivalence with respect to the goals of relational closeness and distance. Attachment-anxious individuals exhibited strong attitudinal ambivalence toward a romantic partner, assessed by both explicit and implicit measures. They also exhibited strong motivational ambivalence regarding closeness (both explicit and implicit), and this motivational conflict was intensified in relational contexts that encouraged either approach or avoidance tendencies. Participants who scored relatively high on avoidant attachment proved to be implicitly ambivalent about distance issues but mainly in negative relational contexts. Several alternative interpretations of the results were considered and ruled out. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Assimilation for Affiliation and Contrast for Control: Complementary Self-Construals.

People have knowledge about relationships (i.e., relational schemas) that is based on their experiences. Because most people have experience with complementary behavior (interaction partners behaving similarly in terms of affiliation but oppositely in terms of control), they expect complementary behavior in their relationships. Like other beliefs about relationships, expectations of complementarity affect self-construal. The authors provide evidence for complementary self-construal; people assimilate to relevant relationship partners on the affiliation dimension and contrast on the control dimension. Consistent with the proposed role of relationship knowledge in these effects, complementary self-construal was moderated by the familiarity of the target, whether people focused on their relationship with or the appearance of the target, and whether the context was relevant for the interpersonal dimension. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

A symbolic-connectionist theory of relational inference and generalization.

The authors present a theory of how relational inference and generalization can be accomplished within a cognitive architecture that is psychologically and neurally realistic. Their proposal is a form of symbolic connectionism: a connectionist system based on distributed representations of concept meanings, using temporal synchrony to bind fillers and roles into relational structures. The authors present a specific instantiation of their theory in the form of a computer simulation model, Learning and Inference with Schemas and Analogies (LISA). By using a kind of self-supervised learning, LISA can make specific inferences and form new relational generalizations and can hence acquire new schemas by induction from examples. The authors demonstrate the sufficiency of the model by using it to simulate a body of empirical phenomena concerning analogical inference and relational generalization. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2011 APA, all rights reserved)     

Perspective taking as a means to overcome motivational barriers in negotiations: When putting oneself into the opponent's shoes helps to walk toward agreements.

Previous negotiation research predominantly focused on psychological factors that lead to suboptimal compromises as opposed to integrative agreements. Few studies systematically analyzed factors that impact the emergence of hurtful partial impasses (i.e., nonagreements on part of the issues). The present research investigates negotiators' egoistic motivation as a determinant for the emergence of partial impasses. In addition, the authors seek to demonstrate that perspective taking serves as a powerful tool to avoid impasses and to overcome egoistic impediments. Specifically, it was predicted that within an integrative context perspective-takers succeed to exchange concessions on low- versus high-preference issues (i.e., logroll), thereby increasing their individual profits without inflicting hurtful losses upon their counterparts. Three studies were conducted to test these predictions. Study 1 reveals that whereas negotiators' egoistic motivation increases the risk of partial impasses, perspective taking alleviates this risk. Study 2 demonstrates that this beneficial effect of a perspective-taking mindset is limited to integrative negotiations and does not emerge in a distributive context, in which negotiators are constrained to achieve selfish goals by inflicting hurtful losses on their counterparts. Study 3 confirms the assumption that in an integrative context egoistic perspective-takers overcome the risk of impasses by means of logrolling. The findings of the present studies are discussed with respect to their contribution to research on negotiations, social motivation, and perspective taking. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2011 APA, all rights reserved)     

"Neither Fish nor Flesh": Commentary on Jon Mills (2005).

Mills (see record 2005-04819-001) offers a wide-ranging critique of relational psychoanalysis, seeking to point out its theoretical shortcomings and its clinical hazards. Although he declares an evenhanded and nonpolemic approach, promotes "accurate scholarship," and decries "illegitimate attacks" on psychoanalytic literature, Mills' thesis is rife with rhetorical excesses, unsubstantiated allegations, and misrepresentations of clinical moments unlinked from their contexts. This commentary highlights where Mills supports his opinions through evocative and mystifying rhetoric rather than scholarly and substantiating evidence. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)