Factors Affecting Engineering Productivity

Engineering performance has a major impact on subsequent project phases, such as procurement and construction, and thus, has the potential to affect the overall project outcome. This study utilizes metrics and a database from the Construction Industry Institute (CII) benchmarking and metrics program to investigate relationships between factors thought to affect direct engineering labor productivity during detailed engineering. Collaborating with industry practitioners, quantitative assessments were analyzed with industry input through various CII committee meetings and industry forums. Significant correlations are found between engineering productivity and project size, project type, project priority, and phase involvement. Correlations are also found between degree of modularization, funded front-end planning effort, and quality management and engineering productivity. These findings extend and, in some cases, contradict previous research.     

Fundamental Principles of Workforce Management

This paper was written to fill a void created by the absence of fundamental principles of site construction management. Efficient workforce utilization is essential to managing a productive and cost efficient site. For more than 25?years, the senior author has been observing and writing about inefficient labor productivity practices resulting from poor site management practices. Using deductive reasoning, fundamental principles were developed to avoid poor practices. General and fundamental principles related to performance measures and daily work schedules are cited. Additional principles are cited in the categories of work assignments, crew structure, disruptions, multiskilling, preassemblies and modules, and symbiotic crew relationships. The principles have been intentionally left general so as to apply to a broad range of situations.     

Construction Productivity Improvement

Construction productivity has been on the decline in the last decade. The results are presented on a survey of the Engineering News‐Record 400 largest contractors to obtain their views on where productivity improvements would most help and to compare the trends with a similar survey carried out in 1979. Data were collected on the general company characteristics of the responding contractors, and on the contractors' opinions on potential areas for productivity improvement in the office and in the field. Findings indicate that immediate research should concentrate on improving marketing practices, planning and scheduling, labor‐management relations, site supervision, industrialized building systems, equipment policy and engineering design; and that governmental regulations have lost the immediate urgency attached to them in 1979.It is also recommended that similar surveys be conducted every 3 to 4 years to identify new trends and to steer research in the appropriate direction.     

Evaluating Cost Overruns of Asphalt Paving Project Using Statistical Process Control Methods

While some projects will experience changes to the contracted cost by deduction or additions, construction cost overruns are becoming a common problem in the construction industry. Steps need to be taken to minimize cost overrun through cost and quality control techniques. This paper presents a study conducted to evaluate construction cost overruns of asphalt paving operations performed by the Illinois Department of Transportation (IDOT). The main objective is to analyze the main causes of cost overruns and evaluate the amount of cost overrun of asphalt paving operations, using statistical process control (SPC) techniques. Real data from projects in the year 2000 were collected from IDOT. These data contain cost information of 219 projects. The results indicate that the average cost overrun for the sample collected was 4% above the bid price. Reasons for cost overruns are analyzed and a Pareto chart and a cause and effect diagram are constructed. Individuals and Moving Range (MR) control charts are developed and their interpretation and use are discussed. Furthermore, the benefits and limitations of using the individuals and MR chart in cost control applications are pointed out. It is recommended that SPC analysis be an integral part in managing and controlling project costs.     

Learning Curve Models of Construction Productivity

Current research into learning curve models of construction productivity is presented. Five mathematical models are identified and each of these are used to model unit rates for 65 sets of data. The correlation between predicted and actual unit rates is determined, and on this basis, it is concluded that the best predictor is a cubic model. The often cited straight‐line model is only marginally adequate. The validity of the straight‐line model is further undermined by showing that the learning rate is not a constant value. Time data for erecting and setting 466 precast concrete floor planks is used to support the conclusion that the straight‐line model is not a reliable model for predicting future performance.     

Benchmarking of Construction Productivity

Construction productivity has been a cause of great concern in both the construction industry and academia. Even though many companies have developed their own productivity tracking systems based on their experiences and accounting systems, none have been successful in establishing common definitions and developing a survey tool that collects standard productivity data at the appropriate levels. This research was initiated to establish a common set of construction productivity metrics and their corresponding definitions. As a result of this research effort, the Construction Productivity Metrics System (CPMS), which contain a list of direct and indirect accounts and 56 data elements grouped into seven major categories, was developed. The Construction Productivity Metrics System is a standard construction productivity data collection tool and provides a framework to report industry norms to benchmark construction productivity. Input from 73 industry experts was used in determining the 56 measuring elements and their corresponding definitions. Preliminary findings from initial sample of 16 industrial projects indicate that the productivity metrics can be produced and should be meaningful for construction productivity benchmarking. Because of the small sample size, more than general preliminary conclusion would be inappropriate. Based on the analyses, the developed CPMS is believed to be a reasonable productivity data collection tool and when sufficient data are available should be capable of producing reasonable industry benchmarks.     

Impact of Change’s Timing on Labor Productivity

There are many types of construction changes and each type can have an effect on labor productivity. To a certain extent though the specific type of change is not as important as the mere presence of the change and, as analyzed in this paper, the timing of that change. The research reported in this paper reaffirms that project change is disruptive and detrimental to labor productivity. Data from 162 construction projects were statistically analyzed and a series of three curves are presented in this paper, representing the impact that change has on the labor productivity for early, normal, and late timing situations. The projects are a representative sample of the industry, involving a wide range of sizes, different delivery systems, and industry sectors. Late change is more disruptive of project productivity than early change, all other things being equal. The implications and benefits of this research are clear: if changes are necessary, they should be recognized and incorporated as early as possible. Practitioners can use these data and curves for either forward pricing or retrospective pricing of changes. Other researchers can use these findings to test their own findings and to explore timing issues in further detail.     

Job Performance Dimensions for Improving Final Project Outcomes

Job performance is argued to be substantially influential to project performance. However, existing construction management literature pays less attention to job performance issues, not to mention exploring the relationship between job performance and project performance. This study therefore aims at examining the effects of job performance on project performance. Four categories (task, behavior, management, and self) of job performance dimensions were extracted by means of an exploratory factor analysis. A hypothesized model is developed, which specifies the relationships between the four job performance categories (independent variables) and overall project performance (the dependent variable). The model was tested using path analysis. Results indicate that the task category of job performance (consisting of nine dimensions) is significantly related to final project outcomes. Specifically, for the success of a project, a construction company must consider how to ensure employees are equipped with such attributes as responsibility, quality of work, ability, job knowledge, experience, efficiency, accuracy, judgment, and initiative.     

Emotional Intelligence and Leadership Styles in Construction Project Management

Human factors are of paramount importance to the success of projects. Although a lot of studies have been carried out on human factors in project management, not much research has been done on emotional intelligence (EI). Studies have shown that EI is beneficial to both the individual and the organization. The benefits of EI to project management were investigated in terms of the style of leadership. The study was conducted in Thailand by interviewing project managers and engineers (PMEs); and client representatives. The results showed that EI affected leadership behavior of the project leader. PMEs with higher EI tend to use open communication and proactive leadership styles. It is also found that EI generates delegating, open communication, and proactive behavior, which can bring positive outcomes to the organization.     

Quantifying the Impact of Schedule Compression on Labor Productivity for Mechanical and Sheet Metal Contractor

In a typical construction project, a contractor may often find that the time originally allotted to perform the work has been severely reduced. The reduction of time available to complete a project is commonly known throughout the construction industry as schedule compression. Schedule compression negatively impacts labor productivity and consequently becomes a source of dispute between owners and contractors. This paper examines how schedule compression affects construction labor productivity and provides a model quantifying the impact of schedule compression on labor productivity based on data collected from 66 mechanical and 37 sheet metal projects across the United States. The model can be used in a proactive manner to reduce productivity losses by managing the factors affecting productivity under the situation of schedule compression. Another useful application of the model is its use as a litigation avoidance tool after the completion of a project.     

Impact of Stress on the Performance of Construction Project Managers

The work of construction project managers (CPMs) is often highly stressful, due to time pressures, and due to the uncertainties and the dynamic social structure involved in construction projects. This study aims to investigate the impact of stress on the performance of CPMs. Correlation analysis and structural equation modeling are employed to uncover the relationships between different types of stress (i.e., objective stress, burnout, and physiological stress) and the work performances (i.e., task performance, interpersonal performance, and organizational performance) of CPMs. Data were collected from 108 CPMs who work in a variety of construction sectors, including prime contractors, subcontractors, developers, consultant firms, and the public sector. Results showed that (1) objective stress reduces the task performance of CPMs while burnout can have a positive effect on it; (2) interpersonal performance is maximized with a moderate level of objective stress (i.e., an inverted-U-shaped relationship between these two variables) and increases in line with the improvement of the task performance of individuals; and (3) organizational performance has U-shaped relationships with both burnout and physiological stresses and is worsened by objective stress. Last, it is suggested to stakeholders that regular reviews of job allocation, stress appraisals, stress management workshops, group or individual counseling, and psychological treatment or physiotherapy be carried out to optimize the stress and the performance of CPMs.     

Improving Employees’ Work-Life Balance in the Construction Industry: Project Alliance Case Study

Work-life conflict has a damaging effect on job satisfaction, organizational commitment, productivity turnover, and absenteeism. On an individual level, work-life conflict is associated with employee burnout, mental health issues, substance abuse, and diminished family functioning. Thus, work-life balance is an important issue to the construction industry, in terms of both organizational effectiveness and occupational health. Long and inflexible work hours are the most consistent predictor of work-life conflict among construction employees, particularly those working on-site or in a project office. There is considerable resistance to the adoption of new ways of scheduling work within the industry. This paper describes the post hoc evaluation of a compressed work week (reducing the length of the working week, but increasing the length of the working day) in a case study project alliance in Queensland, Australia. Quantitative and qualitative data are presented to demonstrate the beneficial impact of the initiative on employees’ work-life balance. The evaluation provides prima facie evidence that alternative work schedules can improve construction employees’ work-life balance, creating benefits for construction employees and organizations. The paper concludes that project alliances provide an ideal environment in which work-life balance initiatives can help to create high-performance work systems in the construction sector.     

Developing a Complexity Measure for Project Schedules

Several factors contribute to the complexity of project schedules, including the number of activities, the level of detail, and the shape of the project network. This paper presents a measure that assesses the complexity of project schedules in terms of the connectivity of the activities. Unlike similar complexity measures, the proposed complexity measure does not consider redundant relationships in the project’s schedule. In addition, the measure is expressed as a percentage and therefore has the advantage of being intuitively understand by project managers. The measure considers the degree of interrelationships between the activities in the project’s schedule. The measure has been implemented in a computerized tool to help managers assess the complexity of their projects. The tool is developed as an add-in to popular commercial scheduling software like MS Project.     

Integrated Electronic Commerce Model for the Construction Industry

The construction industry has been relentlessly searching for technology solutions to enhance its productivity and efficiency. This paper presents an investigation that was conducted to obtain an overview of the current situation of electronic commerce applications using Internet and web-based technologies for the construction industry. A conceptual model named Integrated Electronic Commerce Model for the construction industry is proposed in this paper. Based on this model, construction project scheduling process and its related business activities at the industry and enterprise levels are analyzed to compare the interaction and integration of construction processes, in the electronic commerce environment versus those in the traditional environment.     

Improving Productivity on a Troubled Bridge Project

This paper presents a case study of a bridge constructed under adverse conditions in rural Florida. The major challenges facing the contractor were clearly identified through analysis. The bridge was constructed by an established, experienced bridge contractor that faced many daunting challenges in the construction of the bridge foundation, ranging from overdesign to the project manager managing his first construction project. However, the biggest challenge was unforeseen site conditions; namely, some of the most difficult clay imaginable through which to drive piles. These challenges forced the contractor into several tactical maneuvers. In sharing both the methods adapted by the contractor and the results of the adaptations, this paper quantifies for researchers and practitioners how a good contractor made sound, fundamental decisions to overcome severe challenges, improve productivity rates midproject, and eventually make the project a success. A seeming disaster early on, the project was eventually completed in less than the contract duration and at a sizable profit for the contractor.     

Contractor Process Improvement for Enhancing Construction Productivity

This paper presents a regression model that relates job site productivity to process improvement initiatives (PIIs) executed both before and during construction. Applied during early project stages, this model helps industry practitioners to predict the expected value of labor productivity based on certain inputs related to preconstruction planning and construction execution. The model demonstrates the strong relationship of project performance to a variety of PIIs including design completeness, definition of a project vision statement, testing oversight, and project manager experience and dedication. The correlational research methodology targeted 75 projects representing approximately $274.53 million in civil construction. The data collection effort considered 45 PIIs (independent variables) using quantitative and qualitative measures. The modeling technique involved the use of multiple linear regression, a method that exploits available data from multiple, independent sources to focus on specific outcomes. The model was developed directly from contractor specific information and subjected to rigorous statistical analysis. The model provides project managers as front line industry practitioners with a deliberate yet practical approach to project management and productivity enhancement. The modeling results include verification analysis and a discussion of the model’s usefulness and limitations.     

Total Quality Management for Construction

Traditional approaches to quality control in the construction industry are inadequate and should be replaced with the Total Quality Control concept implemented through the Quality Control (Q.C.) Circle as developed in Japan and currently in wide use throughout the manufacturing industry. The term “total quality control” is defined, and four total quality control principles are set forth on the basis of this definition. The evolution of quality control is traced from the nineteenth century to today to explain the decline in quality standards and to illustrate the need for a new approach. Unique characteristics of the construction industry are described as they relate to the Q.C. circle concept. Implementation of this concept will result in higher quality, lower costs, and increased productivity in the construction industry.     

Management’s Perception of Key Performance Indicators for Construction

There is a great need in the construction industry for identifying a set of common indicators to be used by construction executive and project managers in measuring construction performance at the project level. The focus of this research was to collect management perceptions of the key performance indicators currently utilized in the construction industry. Both quantitative performance indicators and qualitative performance indicators are represented. A literature search was used to generate the initial set of perceived key performance indicators, which were administered to the construction industry via a survey. A statistical analysis of the collected survey responses provided information for the identification of a common set of perceived Key Performance Indicators (KPIs) by construction sector, management level, and experience level. Correlations were performed for both the quantitative and qualitative indicators to determine which type of indicator is used most extensively. Basic statistical analyses and frequency distributions provided evidence in support of some of the hypotheses of the research. The results of the survey data analysis support the hypothesis that KPIs vary according to management’s perspective. Further analysis displayed a substantial difference between construction executive and project management’s perceptions. However, six indicators were reported as being most useful by every segment of the construction industry involved in this study. The correlation between quantitative indicators and qualitative indicators proved to be inconclusive.     

Software for Planning and Cost Control in Directional Drilling Projects

As the complexity and size of the projects undertaken by horizontal directional drilling (HDD) contractors rapidly increase, there is a growing need for the development of dedicated software designed to meet the industry’s special needs and requirements. This paper presents the results of a survey of the HDD industry’s software needs as well as a summary of commercially available software specifically designed for this industry. In addition, the development of two computerized applications tailored for the HDD industry are described. The first of these applications is an integrated data management system that combines asset management, cost control, estimating, and project tracking capabilities, enabling decision makers to closely monitor field performance in terms of expenditure and productivity. The second application is a simulation model developed for optimizing the utilization of drilling rigs and hydro-vacuum trucks on large-scale urban projects. Both applications are designed to improve the planning, estimating, and productivity of directional drilling projects, ultimately reducing the cost of expanding underground infrastructure networks.     

Best Practices for Integrating the Concurrent Engineering Environment into Multipartner Project Management

The use of the Internet, e-mail, and other technologies has been steadily filtering into the building process, creating a concurrent engineering (CE) environment, and enabling collaborative efforts in the building process. The concurrent engineering environment is established by a variety of tools, including internet accessible servers, e-mail, mobile telephones, and many other existing CE tools. Organizations involved in the construction process recognize the need for assessment of benefits resulting from CE tools, but find the evaluation of these benefits difficult and complicated. The project presented in this paper, “project management and organization in the concurrent engineering environment (ProCE),” is applicable to both researchers and practitioners. The ProCE project developed a measuring model, which may be used by future researchers in this area, attempted to measure benefits derived from using the CE environment in construction design and project management routines, and developed guidelines for best practice implementation by practitioners, based on four case studies. The project included the measurement of both the quantitative and qualitative benefit of CE environment implementation in building construction projects using tools that were readily available through application service providers. Measurement of cost and other quantifiable benefits have been extensively studied. Therefore, the majority of the discussion in the current paper will address the ProCE project’s measurement of qualitative benefits.