Design of joint systems: a theoretical challenge for cognitive systems engineering

In this paper the “joint systems approach” will be discussed. The approach is considered as a new paradigm in cognitive systems engineering (CSE). Its central idea, that human and technology form a functional unity, is as such not new. Why, then, has this idea become so appealing right now? In the first part of the paper we seek answers to this question by analysing the current situation in product design. The conclusion is that the focus of design is shifting from single products to intelligent environments. This change in focus induces tensions into the design process that urge for solutions. One of them is re-conceptualising the relationship between human and technology, precisely what the joint system approach is about. Three different joint system approaches are considered: the joint cognitive systems approach (JCS), the Risö extended CSE approach, and the joint intelligent systems (JIS) approach proposed by us. Comparisons are made with regard to how these approaches understand the joint system to be organised. While the JCS approach focuses on the human–technology relationship, the other two consider this relationship as embedded in a context of object-oriented activity. As a consequence, environment becomes included in the joint system. In JIS approach we propose the use of the semiotic concept of habit to characterise the ways of functioning of the joint system. “Habit” is a tool for identifying generic patterns in the situation-specific behaviour of the system. Defining habits enables expressing the meaning or purpose of the system’s functioning. In the end of the paper, we propose a design process model for the development of JIS. This approach is aimed at designing systems in usage i.e. to design of practices.     

When paradigms collide at the road rail interface: evaluation of a sociotechnical systems theory design toolkit for cognitive work analysis

The Cognitive Work Analysis Design Toolkit (CWA-DT) is a recently developed approach that provides guidance and tools to assist in applying the outputs of CWA to design processes to incorporate the values and principles of sociotechnical systems theory. In this paper, the CWA-DT is evaluated based on an application to improve safety at rail level crossings. The evaluation considered the extent to which the CWA-DT met pre-defined methodological criteria and aligned with sociotechnical values and principles. Both process and outcome measures were taken based on the ratings of workshop participants and human factors experts. Overall, workshop participants were positive about the process and indicated that it met the methodological criteria and sociotechnical values. However, expert ratings suggested that the CWA-DT achieved only limited success in producing RLX designs that fully aligned with the sociotechnical approach. Discussion about the appropriateness of the sociotechnical approach in a public safety context is provided.

Practitioner Summary: Human factors and ergonomics practitioners need evidence of the effectiveness of methods. A design toolkit for cognitive work analysis, incorporating values and principles from sociotechnical systems theory, was applied to create innovative designs for rail level crossings. Evaluation results based on the application are provided and discussed.     

Designing sustainable work systems: The need for a systems approach

There is a growing discussion concerning sustainability. While this discussion was at first mainly focused on a society level – and sometimes regarding especially environmental problems, one can now see that this topic is of increasing relevance for companies worldwide and even the social dimension of this three pillar approach is gaining more and more importance. This leads to some questions: Is sustainability already a part of human factors thinking or do we have to further develop our discipline? How can we define sustainable work systems? What are the topics we have to consider? Do we need a new systems ergonomics perspective regarding whole value creation chains and a life-cycle perspective concerning products (and work systems)? How can we deal with potential contradictions about social, ecological, and economic goals?     

How video informs cognitive systems engineering: making experience count

Cognitive systems engineering (CSE) requires perspectives that demand users and teams be understood in relation to the context they act in. Situated problems that emerge in the context of use are frequently distributed across people, information and artefacts (distributed cognition) that characterise the temporal emergence of activities. Current tools and capabilities within the digital video revolution make it possible to actively capture, record, explore and analyse video streams to assist in understanding distributed cognition and the implications it has for envisioned designs. Yet, there are research issues and questions to address. The Living Laboratory Framework is described and posited as one way to systematically integrate video into CSE to enhance the reliability and validity of design artefacts in practice. Case examples (Jasper and NeoCITIES simulations) are explored to provide specific ways of understanding different kinds of video representation and analysis within CSE.     

From telephones to iPhones: applying systems thinking to networked, interoperable products

An expanding array of consumer products have the facility to have things added in and plugged on, their firmware upgraded, and as yet un-thought of future capability supported. In short, more and more products can be connected to something and/or someone, and in doing so are slowly adapting to the current day state of modernity that is called ‘the information age’. Inevitably, this brings with it changes in the way that products should be thought about and designed. The purpose of this paper is to try and help product designers and Ergonomists to get a grip on all the complexity and non-linearity that the information age brings with it, and help make themselves and their increasingly networked and interoperable products at home in it. Our case study, Apple's new iPhone, serves as a pertinent example.     

Modelling of cognitive activity during normal and abnormal situations using Object Petri Nets, application to a supervision system

This article presents a method for the modelling of cognitive activity using Object Petri Nets. The method includes the recognition of the various classes of situation (normal and abnormal) which human operators are likely to meet whilst performing their tasks. Each of these classes is described according to the characteristics of the state of the system. We will present the various mental representations used during the control/command activity according to the main aims set by the operator. The examples given come from a project dealing with the integration of a a supervision system in a railway traffic regulation room.     

A tandem architecture for cooperating knowledge-based concurrent engineering systems

This paper proposes a tandem architecture for cooperating heterogeneous expert systems. Two levels of meta and working expert systems are involved. The working-level expert systems (W-ES), which may be implemented in their own computational environments and in private proof languages, are mainly for application computations. The meta-level expert systems (M-ES), using a common argument language, are mainly responsible for cooperation. The prototype AGENTS system is described for constructing M-ES. Interaction among W-ES has been transformed into two forms: communication between M-ES through ordinary AGENTS messages and communication between M-ES and the corresponding W-ES using the Deductive Inference Language (DIL). DIL predicates are provided for defining DIL: messages, actuators and converters for interpreting DIL queries and instantiating variables. By this approach, stand-alone capability of infividual systems is retained at the working-level and cooperation is achieved effectively with minimum embellishment at the meta-level.     

An agent-based framework for cooperating expert systems in concurrent engineering

This paper describes an agent-based framework with a tandem integration architecture for cooperating distributed, heterogeneous, and autonomous concurrent engineering systems. The approach has been experimented with using the prototype AGENTS system. It is demonstrated that design tools can be dynamically connected and configured to construct highly complex systems on an incremental basis, designing and proving one system at a time without bothering the rest. A major advantage of the approach is the balance between the interoperability and the autonomy of individual systems.     

Socio-technical systems: From design methods to systems engineering

It is widely acknowledged that adopting a socio-technical approach to system development leads to systems that are more acceptable to end users and deliver better value to stakeholders. Despite this, such approaches are not widely practised. We analyse the reasons for this, highlighting some of the problems with the better known socio-technical design methods. Based on this analysis we propose a new pragmatic framework for socio-technical systems engineering (STSE) which builds on the (largely independent) research of groups investigating work design, information systems, computer-supported cooperative work, and cognitive systems engineering. STSE bridges the traditional gap between organisational change and system development using two main types of activity: sensitisation and awareness; and constructive engagement. From the framework, we identify an initial set of interdisciplinary research problems that address how to apply socio-technical approaches in a cost-effective way, and how to facilitate the integration of STSE with existing systems and software engineering approaches.     

Designing for self-organisation in sociotechnical systems: resilience engineering,cognitive work analysis,and the diagram of work organisation possibilities

In designing sociotechnical systems, accounting for the phenomenon of self-organisation is critical. Empirical studies show that workers in these systems adapt not just their individual behaviours, but also their collective structures to deal with complex work environments. The concept of self-organisation can explain how such adaptations can be achieved spontaneously, continuously, and relatively seamlessly, and why this phenomenon is important for dealing with instability, uncertainty, and unpredictability in the task demands. However, existing design approaches such as resilience engineering and cognitive work analysis are limited in their capacity to design for self-organisation. This paper demonstrates that the diagram of work organisation possibilities, a recent addition to cognitive work analysis, provides a sound theoretical basis for designing for self-organisation. That is, it shows how essential components of the diagram are aligned with the concept of self-organisation and are well-grounded in empirical observations of adaptation in a variety of sociotechnical systems, specifically emergency management, military, and healthcare systems. Consequently, designs based on this diagram should have the potential to facilitate the emergence of new spatial, temporal, and functional organisational structures from the flexible actions of individual, interacting actors, thereby enhancing a system’s capacity for dealing with a dynamic, ambiguous work environment. Future research should focus on validating these ideas and demonstrating their value in industrial settings.

     

The Kinetics of Recovery Oxygen Intake and Blood Lactic Acid Concentration Measured to a Baseline of Mild Steady Work

The relationship between blood lactate, pyruvate and excess lactate removal and the excess oxygen consumed during the recovery from work on a stationary bicycle ergometer was studied intensively on two healthy male subjects. The results showed contrary to the recent work of Huckabee (1958) and the studies of Rowell et al. (1966) that a clear quantitative relationship exists between the area under the second portion of a double exponential Vo², recovery curve and the O² equivalents of LA: the association between the two variables being r = 0·93 which accounted for over 80% of the total variance of the two measurements. The findings fully support the earlier concept of Margaria et al. (1933) of separate ‘ alactic ’ and ‘ lactic ’ portions of the O² debt and suggest that it is these components of the post exercise V?o², which must be used in the analysis and interpretation of the contribution of anaerobic processes during work.     

面向设计过程的协同审图模型及其实现

鉴于现有的电子会议系统不能很好地满足设计部门对工程图进行协同审议的需求,介绍了一个面向设计过程的协同审图模型及其实现方法。该模型利用COM／DCOM实现了针对图档讨论的同步交互,将图档讨论的特点和普通电子会议的功能结合起来,为设计部门提供了一个高效率的工作模式。     

Putting mind and body back together: A human-systems approach to the integration of the physical and cognitive dimensions of task design and operations

As human factors and ergonomics professionals we should be considering the total context within which the person must operate when performing a task, providing a service, or using a product. We have traditionally thought of the person as having a cognitive system and a physical system and much of our scientific literature has been myopically focused on one or the other of these systems while, in general, totally ignoring the other. However, contemporary efforts have begun to recognize the rich interactions occurring between these systems that can have a profound influence on performance and dictate overall system output. In addition, modern efforts are beginning to appreciate the many interactions between the various elements of the environment that can influence the components of the human systems. The next level of sophistication in the practice of human factors and ergonomics must begin to consider the totality of the human-system behavior and performance and must consider systems design interactions which result from these collective effects. Only then will we be able to truly optimize systems for human use.     

User image mismatch in anaesthesia alarms: a cognitive systems analysis

In this study, principles of Cognitive Systems Engineering are used to better understand the human–machine interaction manifesting in the use of anaesthesia alarms. The hypothesis is that the design of the machine incorporates built-in assumptions of the user that are discrepant with the anaesthesiologist's self-assessment, creating ‘user image mismatch’. Mismatch was interpreted by focusing on the ‘user image’ as described from the perspectives of both machine and user. The machine-embedded image was interpreted through document analysis. The user-described image was interpreted through user (anaesthesiologist) interviews. Finally, an analysis was conducted in which the machine-embedded and user-described images were contrasted to identify user image mismatch. It is concluded that analysing user image mismatch expands the focus of attention towards macro-elements in the interaction between man and machine. User image mismatch is interpreted to arise from complexity of algorithm design and incongruity between alarm design and tenets of anaesthesia practice.     

Strategies for designing distributed systems: case studies in the design of an air traffic management system

The air traffic management system in the USA is an example of a distributed problem-solving system. It has elements of both cooperative and competitive problem-solving. It includes complex organizations such as Flight Operations Centers, the FAA Air Traffic Control Systems Command Center (ATCSCC), and traffic management units at en route centers that focus on daily strategic planning, as well as individuals concerned more with immediate tactical decisions (such as air traffic controllers and pilots). The design of this system has evolved over time to rely heavily on the distribution of tasks and control authority in order to keep cognitive complexity manageable for any one individual operator, and to provide redundancy (both human and technological) to serve as a safety net to catch the slips or mistakes that any one person or entity might make. Within this distributed architecture, a number of different conceptual approaches have been applied to deal with cognitive complexity and to provide redundancy. These approaches can be characterized in terms of the strategy for distributing: (1) control or responsibility, (2) knowledge or expertise, (3) access to data, (4) processing capacity, and (5) goals and priorities. This paper will provide an abstract characterization of these alternative strategies for distributing work in terms of these 5 dimensions, and will illustrate and evaluate their effectiveness in terms of concrete realizations found within the National Airspace System.     

Human factors systems approach to healthcare quality and patient safety

Human factors systems approaches are critical for improving healthcare quality and patient safety. The SEIPS (Systems Engineering Initiative for Patient Safety) model of work system and patient safety is a human factors systems approach that has been successfully applied in healthcare research and practice. Several research and practical applications of the SEIPS model are described. Important implications of the SEIPS model for healthcare system and process redesign are highlighted. Principles for redesigning healthcare systems using the SEIPS model are described. Balancing the work system and encouraging the active and adaptive role of workers are key principles for improving healthcare quality and patient safety.     

A pilgrim's progress: From cognitive science to cooperative design

This paper provides a glimpse of some different theoretical frameworks and empirical methods in the author's search for theories and practices that might improve the utility and usability of computer artifacts. The essay touches on some problematic aspects of currently accepted theories and techniques in the cognitive sciences, especially in their application to the field of human-computer interaction, and mentions some alternative conceptions based on a cultural-historical approach. The intent is to widen the nature of the debate about appropriate frameworks for discussing human activities especially when we discuss design activities in the context of computer systems development. The paper concludes with some suggestions for more fruitful research directions that involve the active participation of those for whom the research is ostensibly being done, and a greater emphasis on understanding how artifact design and use are inextricably intertwined.This paper originated from a talk entitled From Cognitive Science to Cooperative Design that later appeared in rough paper form in Finnemann, N. O. (Ed.) Proceedings from the Symposium Theories and Technologies of the Information Society (Centre for Cultural Research, Aarhus University, Denmark, Sept. 1989). Some of the ideas and material in the present paper first appeared in Bannon & Bødker (in press) and Bannon (in press).     

Towards new web services based supervisory systems in complex industrial organizations: Basic principles and case study

Mobility, cooperation and the information access of the different human actors within a complex industrial organization are some of the concerns of web-based HMI design. In this paper we highlight the application of some key concepts of web services for the specification and design of a complex supervisory web-based HMI. Hence, a novel approach based on a service oriented architecture and web services allowing flexible and transparent interaction between the field devices and human operators currently being considered is now possible. An overall design framework is presented and discussed. A real representative case study illustrating this approach is described and discussed from the human-machine interaction point of view, as well as further work.     

Representing and analysing integrated engineering systems through combinatorial representations

The current paper introduces a systematic method for representing and analysing coupled integrated engineering systems by means of general discrete mathematical models, called Combinatorial Representations, that can be conveniently implemented in computers. The combinatorial representation of this paper, which is based on graph theory, was previously shown to be useful in representing engineering systems from different engineering domains. Once all of the subsystems of an integrated multidisciplinary system are brought up to the common level of the combinatorial representation, they cease to be separated from one another and the analysis process is applied to all of the engineering elements disregarding the domain to which they belong.During the development of the representation and study of its inherent properties, special attention was dedicated to developing an efficient analysis method. A vectorial extension of the mixed variable method known from electrical network theory was found to be the most suitable choice for this purpose.In the paper, the approach is implemented by representing and analysing two systems: one that is a macro system comprised of truss, dynamic and electric elements, and another that is a comb-driven micro-resonator. The techniques presented in the paper are not limited to analysis only, but can be applied to many other aspects of engineering research. Among them is a systematic derivation of new ways of presenting engineering elements, one of which – the process of derivation of a new type of force representation entitled face force – is described in the paper.Abbreviations CR Combinatorial Representations - FCFS Flow Controlled Flow Source - FCPS Flow Controlled Potential difference Source - FGR Flow Graph Representation - MCA Multidisciplinary Combinatorial Approach - PCFS Potential difference Controlled Flow Source - PCPS Potential difference Controlled Potential difference Source - PGR Potential Graph Representation - RGR Resistance Graph Representation