Mycotoxin contamination of sorghum and its contribution to human dietary exposure in four sub-Saharan countries

This research aimed at evaluating the safety, and the type, level and prevalence of mycotoxins in grain sorghum of four sub-Saharan African (SSA) countries (Burkina Faso, Ethiopia, Mali and Sudan). A multi-analyte LC-MS/MS method for quantification of 23 mycotoxins (nivalenol, deoxynivalenol, fusarenon X, neosolaniol, 3-acetyl deoxynivalenol, 15-acetyl deoxynivalenol, diacetoxyscirpenol, roquefortine C, HT-2 toxin, alternariol, T-2 toxin, FB1, FB2, FB3, zearalenone, aflatoxin G₁, aflatoxin G₂, aflatoxin B₁, aflatoxin B₂, sterigmatocystin, OTA, altenuene, alternariol monomethylether) was applied to different sorghum matrices. Of the 1533 analysed samples, 33% were contaminated with at least one of the following mycotoxins: aflatoxins, fumonisins, sterigmatocystin, Alternaria toxins, OTA and zearalenone. Country of origin, colour, source and collection period of sorghum samples significantly influenced the type, level and prevalence of mycotoxins. Sterigmatocystin (15%), fumonisins (17%) and aflatoxins (13%) were the most prevalent. FB1 (274 ± 585 µg/kg) had the highest mean concentration followed by FB2 (214 ± 308 µg/kg) while diacetoxyscirpenol (8.12 ± 19.2 µg/kg) and HT-2 (11.9 ± 0.00 µg/kg) had the lowest concentrations. Neosolaniol, fusarenon-X, 3-acetyl deoxynivalenol, 15-acetyl deoxynivalenol, T-2 toxin, nivalenol and roquefortine C were not detected in any of the samples. Sudan had the lowest prevalence and mean concentration of all mycotoxins. Pink sorghum had the highest concentrations of fumonisins and aflatoxins. Mycotoxins from Aspergillus spp. and Alternaria spp. are the mycotoxins of concern in SSA grain sorghum with regard to prevalence, concentration and possible health risk from exposure. Based on the performed risk characterisation, daily consumption of sorghum containing aflatoxins, alternariol, alternariol monomethyl ether, sterigmatocystin and OTA could result in exceeding the established health-based guidance values for these toxins.     

Migration of mycotoxins into rice starchy endosperm during the parboiling process

Considering the occurrence of rice contamination by mycotoxins and the increase in rice consumption, the present work had the objective of assessing the migration of mycotoxins into the starchy endosperm during the parboiling process, as to propose conditions that provide lower contamination levels. The newly harvested rice grain sample was examined for the natural occurrence of mycotoxins (aflatoxin B₁, aflatoxin B₂, deoxynivalenol, ochratoxin A, and zearalenone); only the presence of aflatoxin B₁ was found (17 ng/g). The samples were then artificially contaminated with deoxynivalenol and zearalenone, and the parboiling process was conducted according to a 2³ factorial planning with central point, having as variables the contamination level deoxynivalenol 720, 1440, and 2160 ng/g, and zearalenone 476, 952, and 1428 ng/g the soaking time (4, 5, and 6 h) and autoclave time (15, 22.5, and 30 min). Mycotoxins aflatoxin B₁ (AFA B₁), deoxynivalenol (DON), and zearalenone (ZEA) were confirmed and determined through gas chromatography. Findings showed a lower migration trend for AFA B₁ under 6 h of soaking and 30 min of autoclaving, for DON under 6 h of soaking regardless of the autoclaving time, and for ZEA under 4 h of soaking and 15 min of autoclaving. This information can contribute to the choice of process parameters that limit the migration of these mycotoxins if they happen in the raw material.     

Occurrence of emerging mycotoxins in cereals and cereal-based products from the Korean market using LC-MS/MS

The present study aimed to investigate the occurrence of emerging mycotoxins in cereals (n = 61) and cereal-based products (n = 36) collected from Korean market. First of all, using the quick, easy, cheap, effective, rugged and safe (QuEChERS) extraction method, and ultrahigh-pressure liquid chromatography (UPLC) with triple quadruple tandem mass spectrometry (MS/MS), we developed a simple and fast method for quantitative determination of eight emerging mycotoxins including alternariol (AOH), alternariol monomethyl ether (AME), tentoxin (TEN), beauvericin (BEA) and enniatins (ENs; ENA, ENA1, ENB and ENB1). The developed analytical method was validated in parameters of linearity, precision and accuracy. For UPLC-MS/MS analysis, the recoveries of emerging mycotoxins from spiked samples at three concentration levels ranged from 82.7% to 108.8% with RSDs between 0.4% and 14.7%. Analytical methods were applied to determine the contamination of mycotoxins in cereal and cereal-based product samples. Sixty-three of the total 97 samples were contaminated with at least one emerging mycotoxin. The maximum number of emerging mycotoxins observed in a single sample was six out of eight analytes. The highest level of contamination was detected in cereal at 70.9 μg/kg for alternariol monomethyl ether (AME). However, currently there is no international standard for emerging mycotoxins in food. Accordingly, it is necessary to establish a database of emerging mycotoxins contamination through continuous monitoring.     

Determination of type B trichothecenes and macrocyclic lactone mycotoxins in field contaminated maize

A sensitive, reliable liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (HPLC-MS/MS) method for determining some commonly found mycotoxins produced by Fusarium strains in maize was evaluated and applied to field samples. The selected substances were: trichothecenes B (nivalenol, deoxynivalenol, fusarenon X, 3- and 15-acetyldeoxynivalenol) and some macrocyclic lactones (zearalenone, α- and β-zearalenol, zearalanone, α- and β-zearalanol). Analytes were extracted from a 1 g sample by homogenization with acetonitrile/water (75:25, v/v, 25 mL final volume). 5 mL of crude extracts was cleaned-up on Carbograph-4 cartridges. Two fractions were obtained and were analyzed by HPLC-electrospray ionization (ESI) in negative mode. Recoveries for spiked maize samples were in the range 79–106% and method detection limits (MDLs) were ⩽6 ng/g for all compounds, except fusarenon X (12 ng/g). 25 random maize samples were analyzed both by the ELISA-based methods specific for deoxynivalenol and zearalenone and by this method for trichothecenes B and macrocyclic lactones. Results were comparable for zearalenone (R² = 0.982), but disagreed for deoxynivalenol. Finally, a total of 78 freshly harvested maize samples, collected from central and northern Italy during 2002, and divided in two different experiments, were analyzed by the developed method. Data show that there exists a phenomenon of random contamination from the target fusariotoxins just before harvest and an increase of trichothecene B and zearalenone abundance on field crop possibly related to damp climate, temperature range and delayed harvest period. Deoxynivalenol was the most abundant (up to 3430 ng/g) and frequent mycotoxin (40%) detected, followed by acetyldeoxynivalenol. Derivatives of zearalenone were present in traces and β-zearalanol was never found.     

Fusarium mycotoxins in various barley cultivars and their transfer into malt

BACKGROUND: Fusarium toxins, secondary metabolites of toxinogenic Fusarium species, are found in a range of cereal grains. In this study the occurrence of the most commonest Fusarium toxins, namely nivalenol (NIV), deoxynivalenol (DON), deoxynivalenol‐3‐glucoside, fusarenon‐X, 3‐ and 15‐acetyldeoxynivalenol, HT‐2 and T‐2 toxins and zearalenone, in various barley cultivars harvested in 2005–2008 was monitored. The impact of weather, locality, fungicide treatment and barley cultivar (hulless or covered) on contamination was evaluated. The transfer of these mycotoxins into malt was assessed. RESULTS: The most prevalent toxin was DON, which was found in 83% of samples (maximum level 180 µg kg^?1), while HT‐2 was detected in 62% of samples (maximum level 716 µg kg^?1). Using analysis of covariance, weather was found to be the key factor in all years (P < 0.001). A relationship between cultivar and contamination was confirmed only for HT‐2 (P < 0.001) and T‐2 (P = 0.037), with higher levels of these toxins being observed in hulless cultivars. With the exception of NIV (P = 0.008), no significant relationship was found between fungicide treatment and contamination. No distinct trend regarding DON levels in malt was found, with both decreases and increases occurring. CONCLUSION: The results show an inter‐annual variation in mycotoxin occurrence in barley cultivars as well as differences in contamination of malt produced from fungicide‐treated and untreated barley. Copyright © 2010 Society of Chemical Industry     

Microbiological and mycotoxicological analyses of processed cereal-based complementary foods for infants and young children from the German market

This study investigated several food safety criteria in 38 different commercial products of processed cereal-based foods (PCF) from the German market. Microbiological assessment, followed by 16S RNA gene sequencing of suspect colonies, included aerobic mesophilic bacteria, moulds, Enterobacteriaceae, Cronobacter spp., and presumptive Bacillus cereus. Mycotoxin analyses were performed by enzyme immunoassays for deoxynivalenol (DON), zearalenone (ZEN), T-2/HT-2 toxins (T-2/HT-2; oat containing products only), ergot alkaloids (EA), and alternariol (AOH). No violative result above existing European Union regulations or international guidelines was obtained. Most samples had very low aerobic mesophilic cell counts (<2.0 × 10¹ CFU/g), the maximum was 9.6 × 10² CFU/g. A few samples contained low numbers of opportunistic pathogens, most notably Cronobacter sakazakii, Acinetobacter spp., Pantoea spp., and enterotoxigenic Bacillus wiedmannii. Levels of mycotoxin contamination were very low, well below European Union maximum limits. DON was found in 10 samples, at levels of 9–35 µg/kg. T-2/HT-2 were found in all 15 oat-based products (1–8 µg/kg). All samples were negative for ZEN and EA. A high number (n = 25) of samples yielded weakly positive results for the nonregulated AOH (0.4–2 µg/kg), but just three samples exceeded a level of 1 µg/kg. No relationship between cereal composition and analytical findings for microbiological parameters and mycotoxins could be found. As long as PCF meals are freshly prepared and consumed immediately after preparation, the risk from sporadically occurring opportunistic bacteria appears to be minimal.     

Masked mycotoxins: A review

The aim of this review is to give a comprehensive overview of the current knowledge on plant metabolites of mycotoxins, also called masked mycotoxins. Mycotoxins are secondary fungal metabolites, toxic to human and animals. Toxigenic fungi often grow on edible plants, thus contaminating food and feed. Plants, as living organisms, can alter the chemical structure of mycotoxins as part of their defence against xenobiotics. The extractable conjugated or non‐extractable bound mycotoxins formed remain present in the plant tissue but are currently neither routinely screened for in food nor regulated by legislation, thus they may be considered masked. Fusarium mycotoxins (deoxynivalenol, zearalenone, fumonisins, nivalenol, fusarenon‐X, T‐2 toxin, HT‐2 toxin, fusaric acid) are prone to metabolisation or binding by plants, but transformation of other mycotoxins by plants (ochratoxin A, patulin, destruxins) has also been described. Toxicological data are scarce, but several studies highlight the potential threat to consumer safety from these substances. In particular, the possible hydrolysis of masked mycotoxins back to their toxic parents during mammalian digestion raises concerns. Dedicated chapters of this article address plant metabolism as well as the occurrence of masked mycotoxins in food, analytical aspects for their determination, toxicology and their impact on stakeholders.     

Mycotoxins in corn and wheat silage in Israel

Silage is an important feed source for intensive dairy herds worldwide. Fungal growth and mycotoxin production before and during silage storage is a well-known phenomenon, resulting in reduced nutritional value and a possible risk factor for animal health. With this in mind, a survey was conducted to determine for the first time the occurrence of mycotoxins in corn and wheat silage in Israel. A total of 30 corn and wheat silage samples were collected from many sources and analysed using a multi-mycotoxin method based on LC-MS/MS. Most mycotoxins recorded in the present study have not been reported before in Israel. Overall, 23 mycotoxins were found in corn silage; while wheat silage showed a similar pattern of mycotoxin occurrence comprising 20 mycotoxins. The most common post-harvest mycotoxins produced by the Penicillium roqueforti complex were not found in any tested samples, indicative of high-quality preparation and use of silage. Moreover, none of the European Union-regulated mycotoxins – aflatoxin B1, ochratoxin, T-2 toxin, diacetoxyscirpenol and deoxynivalenol – were found above their limits of detection (LODs). The Alternaria mycotoxins – macrosporin, tentoxin and alternariol methyl ether – were highly prevalent in both corn and wheat silage (>80%), but at low concentrations. The most prominent (>80%) Fusarium mycotoxins in corn silage were fusaric acid, fumonisins, beauvericin, monilifomin, equisetin, zearalenone and enniatins, whereas in wheat silage only beauvericin, zearalenone and enniatins occurred in more than 80% of the samples. The high prevalence and concentration of fusaric acid (mean = 765 µg kg^–1) in Israeli corn silage indicates that this may be the toxin of highest potential concern to dairy cow performance. However, more data from different harvest years and seasons are needed in order to establish a more precise evaluation of the mycotoxin burden in Israeli silage.     

Multitoxin evaluation in fermented beverages and cork stoppers by liquid chromatography–tandem mass spectrometry

A total of twenty‐eight mycotoxins were surveyed in wine (red, white and rose), cider (white and rose) and their cork stoppers from eight countries. Toxins of different fungi genera were detected as follows: Alternaria (ATs: alternariol – AOH; alternariol methyl – AME) and Penicillium/Aspergillus (ochratoxin A – OTA; penicillic acid – PAC). Toxins and levels varied with the sample types and country of origin. Wine presented contamination of OTA, AOH and AME. OTA was detected in forty‐one wine samples with levels ranging from 0.01 to 0.86 μg L^?1, below EU legislation. AOH and AME were detected in thirty‐three and eight of wines samples, respectively, at levels from 0.2 to 13.3 μg L^?1, while no contamination was detected in ciders up to the method LOQs. Regarding the cork stoppers toxins detected, they were AOH, AME and PAC. Corks of red wine from different countries had levels of OAH and AME ranging from 5.0 to 101.0 and 2.5 to 5 μg g^?1, respectively. It is necessary to pay more attention on the corks processing and cork type used in the bottles as, different from the ordinary ones, the ground bark and compressed type did not have toxins detected.     

Fungal and bacterial metabolites in commercial poultry feed from Nigeria

Metabolites of toxigenic fungi and bacteria occur as natural contaminants (e.g. mycotoxins) in feedstuffs making them unsafe to animals. The multi-toxin profiles in 58 commercial poultry feed samples collected from 19 districts in 17 states of Nigeria were determined by LC/ESI–MS/MS with a single extraction step and no clean-up. Sixty-three (56 fungal and seven bacterial) metabolites were detected with concentrations ranging up to 10,200?µg?kg^-1 in the case of aurofusarin. Fusarium toxins were the most prevalent group of fungal metabolites, whereas valinomycin occurred in more than 50% of the samples. Twelve non-regulatory fungal and seven bacterial metabolites detected and quantified in this study have never been reported previously in naturally contaminated stored grains or finished feed. Among the regulatory toxins in poultry feed, aflatoxin concentrations in 62% of samples were above 20?µg?kg^?1, demonstrating high prevalence of unsafe levels of aflatoxins in Nigeria. Deoxynivalenol concentrations exceeded 1000?µg?kg^?1 in 10.3% of samples. Actions are required to reduce the consequences from regulatory mycotoxins and understand the risks of the single or co-occurrence of non-regulatory metabolites for the benefit of the poultry industry.     

Occurrence of deoxynivalenol and T-2 toxin in bread and pasta commercialised in Spain

Deoxynivalenol and T-2 toxin were extracted from wheat-based bread (n = 75) and pasta (n = 75) samples using a mixture of acetonitrile:water (86:14 v/v); for analysis, gas chromatography/mass spectrometry after derivatisation with trifluoroacetic anhydride was utilised. The recovery of deoxynivalenol and T-2 toxin from both food matrixes ranged from 90.1 to 94.0%. The occurrence of these mycotoxins in bread was 28.0% and 2.6% for deoxynivalenol and T-2 toxin, respectively, whereas in pasta, the occurrence of both mycotoxins was higher, varying from 9.3 to 62.7%. The mean content of deoxynivalenol (42.5 μg/kg) in bread was lower than the content of T-2 toxin (68.37 μg/kg), while in pasta the content of deoxynivalenol (137.1 μg/kg) was superior. The estimated daily intake of deoxynivalenol and T-2 toxin from the consumption of these products represents 8.4% and 0.2% of the tolerable daily intake, respectively. These results back up the necessity to take a vigilant attitude in order to prevent human intake of trichothecenes. This information is necessary and of high priority in order to protect the consumer’s health from the risk of exposure to these toxins.     

LC-MS/MS multi-analyte method for mycotoxin determination in food supplements

A multi-analyte method for the liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometric determination of mycotoxins in food supplements is presented. The analytes included A and B trichothecenes (nivalenol, deoxynivalenol, 3-acetyldeoxynivalenol, 15-acetyldeoxynivalenol, neosolaniol, fusarenon-X, diacetoxyscirpenol, HT-2 toxin and T-2 toxin), aflatoxins (aflatoxin-B₁, aflatoxin-B₂, aflatoxin-G₁ and aflatoxin-G₂), Alternaria toxins (alternariol, alternariol methyl ether and altenuene), fumonisins (fumonisin-B₁, fumonisin-B₂ and fumonisin-B₃), ochratoxin A, zearalenone, beauvericin and sterigmatocystin. Optimization of the simultaneous extraction of these toxins and the sample pretreatment procedure, as well as method validation were performed on maca (Lepidium meyenii) food supplements. The results indicated that the solvent mixture ethyl acetate/formic acid (95:5, v/v) was the best compromise for the extraction of the analytes from food supplements. Liquid–liquid partition with n-hexane was applied as partial clean-up step to remove excess of co-extracted non-polar components. Further clean-up was performed on Oasis HLB? cartridges. Samples were analysed using an Acquity UPLC system coupled to a Micromass Quattro Micro triple quadrupole mass spectrometer equipped with an electrospray interface operated in the positive-ion mode. Limits of detection and quantification were in the range of 0.3–30 ng g^?1 and 1–100 ng g^?1, respectively. Recovery yields were above 60% for most of the analytes, except for nivalenol, sterigmatocystine and the fumonisins. The method showed good precision and trueness. Analysis of different food supplements such as soy (Glycine max) isoflavones, St John's wort ( Hypericum perforatum), garlic (Allium sativum), Ginkgo biloba, and black radish (Raphanus niger) demonstrated the general applicability of the method. Due to different matrix effects observed in different food supplement samples, the standard addition approach was applied to perform correct quantitative analysis. In 56 out of 62 samples analysed, none of the 23 mycotoxins investigated was detected. Positive samples contained at least one of the toxins fumonisin-B₁, fumonisin-B₂, fumonisin-B₃ and ochratoxin A.     

Survey of dioxins, dioxin-like PCBs and marker PCBs in German feeds of plant origin

Within a representative survey the levels of dioxins (PCDD/PCDF), dioxin-like PCBs and marker PCBs in 206 German feed samples were analysed in the years 2004/2005. The sampling plan included compound feed (N = 115) and roughage and succulent feed (N = 91) and reflected the representative feeding situation in Germany. The median content of WHO-PCB-TEQ in analysed feed samples was 0.017 ng/kg [88% dry matter (d.m.)] and consequently more than a factor of 10 below the action level of 0.35 ng/kg (88% d.m.). A differentiation between compound feed and roughage and succulent feed showed that compound feed [median 0.007 ng/kg (88% d.m.)] were significantly lower contaminated with dioxin-like PCBs than roughage and succulent feed [median 0.058 ng/kg (88% d.m.)]. The median sum contents of the six marker PCBs were 0.16 μg/kg (88% d.m.) for compound feed and 0.56 μg/kg (88% d.m.) for roughage and succulent feed. The median of the WHO-PCDD/F-TEQ was 0.03 ng/kg (88% d.m.), the maximum level of 0.75 ng/kg (88% d.m.) was not exceeded. The median of the WHO-PCDD/F-PCB-TEQ was 0.05 ng/kg (88% d.m.) and consequently a factor of 25 below the maximum level of 1.25 ng/kg. Additionally the samples of roughage and succulent feed were analysed according to their contents of ash insoluble in HCl, representing a degree of the proportion of earthy components in feed. A slight correlation was found between ash insoluble in HCl and WHO-PCDD/F-TEQ (R ² = 0.59) whereas no correlation was found between ash insoluble in HCl and WHO-PCB-TEQ (R ² = 0.06).     

Development of a new method for the simultaneous determination of 21 mycotoxins in coffee beverages by liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry

A new method for the simultaneous detection of 21 mycotoxins (ochratoxin A, aflatoxin B₁, aflatoxin B_2, aflatoxin G₁, aflatoxin G₂, sterigmatocystin, nivalenol, deoxynivalenol, 3-acetyl deoxynivalenol, 15-acetyl deoxynivalenol, diacetoxyscirpenol, neosolaniol, HT-2 toxin, T-2 toxin, fumonisin B₁, fumonisin B₂, enniatin A, enniatin A₁, enniatin B, enniatin B₁, and beauvericin) in coffee beverages was internally validated. The method is based on liquid/liquid extraction with a mixture of ethyl acetate/formic acid (95:5 v/v) and detection using triple quadrupole (QqQ) and ion trap (IT) liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry. The limits of detection and quantification were 0.02 to 39.64 μg/kg, respectively, and the correlation coefficients were optimal for all mycotoxins (R² ≥ 0.992). The recovery values ranged from 72% to 97%. The developed method was demonstrated in six real samples of roasted and instant coffee, caffeinated and decaffeinated coffee, and coffee with sugar added. The analyses indicate the presence of the studied mycotoxins in coffee beverages at μg/kg concentrations. Ochratoxin A, a mycotoxin that is regulated in coffee, was detected in two samples under the maximum limit established by a European legislation (CE1881/2006).     

粮油加工副产物中真菌毒素消减技术研究进展

真菌毒素是一些真菌在生长繁殖过程中产生的有毒有害代谢物，其对粮油加工产业、畜牧业和食品工业造成经济损失的同时亦会威胁人类健康。粮油加工副产物中真菌毒素的污染率相对较高，这些污染的副产物用于畜牧业生产，会严重影响畜禽生产性能。对畜禽危害严重的真菌毒素主要有：黄曲霉毒素（aflatoxin，AF）、脱氧雪腐镰刀菌烯醇（又称呕吐毒素，Deoxynivalenol ，DON）、赭曲霉毒素（ochratoxin，OTA）、玉米赤霉烯酮（zenralenone，ZEN）、T-2毒素（属于单端孢霉烯族毒素）、伏马毒素（fumonisin，FB）等。受真菌毒素污染的饲料和谷物颜色、气味及营养成分会发生变化，导致适口性变差，营养价值降低，还会造成畜禽生长缓慢、免疫力降低、生殖障碍甚至死亡。我国《食品卫生标准（GB2761-2017）》对粮油食品中主要真菌毒素的限量有相应的控制标准。《饲料卫生标准（GB13078-2017）》也明确规定粮油加工副产物用作饲料时其中主要六种真菌毒素的限量标准。目前常用的真菌毒素脱毒方法有物理脱毒法、化学脱毒法、脱霉剂脱毒法等。在处理霉变畜禽饲料时，前两种方法都有一定的缺陷，通常采用添加真菌毒素脱霉剂来降低其对畜禽的危害。本文阐述了饲料中常用脱霉剂吸附剂和降解菌/酶以及脱霉剂体外和体内评估方法，总结了现有吸附剂和降解菌/酶对控制粮油副产物中真菌毒素的作用效果以及使用中存在的问题，并对真菌毒素消减技术的发展方向进行了展望，以期为解决资源浪费问题，促进粮油加工副产物的高效利用提供一定的参考价值。     

LC–MS/MS multi-method for mycotoxins after single extraction,with validation data for peanut,pistachio, wheat,maize, cornflakes,raisins and figs

Mycotoxin analysis is usually carried out by high performance liquid chromatography after immunoaffinity column cleanup or in enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay tests. These methods normally involve determination of single compounds only. EU legislation already exists for the aflatoxins, ochratoxin A and patulin in food, and legislation will come into force for deoxynivalenol, zearalenone and the fumonisins in 2007. To enforce the various legal limits, it would be preferable to determine all mycotoxins by routine analysis in different types of matrices in one single extract. This would also be advantageous for HACCP control purposes. For this reason, a multi-method was developed with which 33 mycotoxins in various products could be analysed simultaneously. The mycotoxins were extracted with an acetonitrile/water mixture, diluted with water and then directly injected into a LC–MS/MS system. The mycotoxins were separated by reversed-phase HPLC and detected using an electrospray ionisation interface (ESI) and tandem MS, using MRM in the positive ion mode, to increase specificity for quality control. The following mycotoxins could be analysed in a single 30-min run: Aflatoxins B₁, B₂, G₁ and G₂, ochratoxin A, deoxynivalenol, zearalenone, T-2 toxin, HT-2 toxin, α-zearalenol, α-zearalanol, β-zearalanol, sterigmatocystin, cyclopiazonic acid, penicillic acid, fumonisins B₁, B₂ and B₃, diacetoxyscirpenol, 3- and 15-acetyl-deoxynivalenol, zearalanone, ergotamin, ergocornin, ergocristin, α-ergocryptin, citrinin, roquefortin C, fusarenone X, nivalenol, mycophenolic acid, alternariol and alternariol monomethyl ether. The limit of quantification for the aflatoxins and ochratoxin A was 1.0 µg kg^?1 and for deoxynivalenol 50 µg kg^?1. The quantification limits for the other mycotoxins were in the range 10–200 µg kg^?1. The matrix effect and validation data are presented for between 13 and 24 mycotoxins in peanuts, pistachios, wheat, maize, cornflakes, raisins and figs. The method has been compared with the official EU method for the determination of aflatoxins in food and relevant FAPAS rounds. The multi-mycotoxin method has been proven by the detection of more than one mycotoxin in maize, buckwheat, figs and nuts. The LC–MS/MS technique has also been applied to baby food, which is subject to lower limits for aflatoxin B₁ and ochratoxin A, ergot alkaloids in naturally contaminated rye and freeze-dried silage samples.     

Rapid Quantification Method of Three <Emphasis Type="Italic">Alternaria</Emphasis> Mycotoxins in Strawberries

Validation of simple and rapid method for three Alternaria mycotoxins determination including alternariol (AOH), alternariol methyl ether (AME) and tentoxin (TEN) in strawberries is described. The extraction procedure was based on a simple liquid–liquid extraction with ethyl acetate, which provided the highest recoveries and the lowest matrix effect. Analytes were determinated by liquid chromatography coupled with tandem mass spectrometry (LC–MS/MS). The obtained relative recoveries were higher than 63 % for the studied mycotoxins in strawberries at the limit of quantification (LQ). Good linearity (r ²?>?0.993) and quantification limits (3–14 ng/g) were obtained. Repeatability, expressed as relative standard deviation, was always lower than 6 %, whereas interday precision was lower than 13 % for the developed method. The method was applied to analyse 24 strawberry samples commercialized in markets of the Valencia city (Spain). Analysed samples were only contaminated with AOH and AME.     

Mycotoxins in Bovine Milk and Dairy Products: A Review

This paper presents a literature review of the occurrence of several mycotoxins in bovine milk and dairy products, because it is the main type of milk produced and marketed worldwide. Mycotoxins are produced by different genera of filamentous fungi and present serious health hazards such as carcinogenicity and mutagenicity. Under favorable growth conditions, toxigenic fungi produce mycotoxins which contaminate the lactating cow's feedstuff. During metabolism, these mycotoxins undergo biotransformation and are secreted in milk. Data show that there is a seasonal trend in the levels of mycotoxins in milk, with these being higher in the cold months probably due to the prolonged storage required for the cattle feeds providing favorable conditions for fungal growth. Good agricultural and storage practices are therefore of fundamental importance in the control of toxigenic species and mycotoxins. Although aflatoxins (especially aflatoxin M₁) are the mycotoxins of greater incidence in milk and dairy products, this review shows that other mycotoxins, such as fumonisin, ochratoxin A, trichothecenes, zearalenone, T‐2 toxin, and deoxynivalenol, can also be found in these products. Given that milk is widely consumed and is a source of nutrients, especially in childhood, a thorough investigation of the occurrence of mycotoxins as well the adoption of measures to minimize their contamination of milk is essential.     

Occurrence of certain mycotoxins in corn and corn‐based products and thermostability of fumonisin B1 during processing

A total of 57 samples of corn and corn‐based products collected from various districts of Egypt were analyzed for Fusarium mycotoxins (T‐2, diacetoxyscripenol (DAS( deoxynivalenol (DON) and fumonisin B₁ (FB₁) and aflatoxins. FB₁ was detected in about 80%, 53.85%, 33.3%, and 28.57% of yellow corn, corn meal, white corn, and popcorn samples, respectively. The levels of FB₁ ranged from 10 to 780 μg/kg. T‐2 and DAS were detected in 5% and 10% of yellow corn samples, respectively, and DON was detected in white corn and popcorn samples at levels of 28.8 and 10.1 μg/kg, respectively. Starch samples were found to be free from Fusarium mycotoxins. Baking balady bread at 450°C/min reduced FB₁ to 72.4% while baking Franco bread at 250°C/20 min reduced FB₁ to 57.4%. Boiling of macaroni and corn in water completely removed FB₁ from contaminated samples. On the other side, corn flakes samples were found to be contaminated with aflatoxins B₁ and G₁ at levels ranging from 6 to 10 ppm, whereas 2.9% of samples were contaminated with aflatoxin B₁ > 35 ppm and G1 > 16 ppm.     

The Microbial Contamination,Toxicity and Quality of Turned and Unturned Outdoor Floor Malted Sorghum

Turned and unturned outdoor floor malted sorghum were studied for their total microbial contamination, nature and extent of contamination by moulds, cytotoxicity (IC₅₀) and quality in terms of diastatic power (DP). The presence of aflatoxins, fumonisins, deoxynivalenol and zearalenone were also investigated. Total microbial counts were high (10⁷–10⁸ cfu/g) in both turned and unturned samples. All samples showed contamination by different moulds, with the dominant being Mucor species, Rhizopus oryzae, Fusarium moniliforme and Phoma sorghina as well as Aspergillus flavus and Alternaria alternata. The latter four are known for producing mycotoxins. Malt samples had very low cytotoxicity (IC₅₀ from 62.5 to >1000 kg/kg), though all contained fumonisins, deoxynivalenol and zearalenone at levels of <0.25–2 μg/g, 15–20 and 10–15 μg/kg, respectively. Malt DP was generally lower in turned samples compared to unturned samples probably because the heat conserved in the latter ensured better germination conditions. Overall, turning during germination did not affect the microbial load, mould population and levels of deoxynivalenol and zearalenone in sorghum malt but decreased sorghum malt DP. Thus, alternative methods of controlling the sorghum malt microbial load should be sought.