Bistatic Scattering and Emissivities of Lossy Dielectric Surfaces With Exponential Correlation Functions

Bistatic scattering and emissivities of surfaces with exponential correlation functions are studied numerically for 2-D geometries in a numerical Maxwell model with 2-D simulations. Surfaces with exponential correlation functions are important for the active and passive microwave remote sensing of land surfaces. Because of the fine-scale features with large slopes of such surfaces, numerical accuracy, which is particularly important for the calculation of emissivity in passive remote sensing, is ensured by a variety of procedures in this paper. The rooftop function and Galerkin's method with numerical integration of near-field impedance matrix elements are used. Cubic spline interpolation is employed to connect knots on random rough surfaces. Numerical accuracy convergence tests are performed for numerical solutions of Maxwell equations by varying the number of points from 13 to 103 points per wavelength in the dielectric medium corresponding to 50-400 points per free wavelength. Surface lengths of up to 100 and 200 free wavelengths and root mean square heights of up to 0.4 and 0.8 free wavelengths, respectively, are used at 5 and 10 GHz to capture all the essential features. Because of the large number of surface unknowns (up to 80 000), the multilevel UV method is further used to accelerate the matrix equation solver. Numerical results are illustrated for both bistatic scattering and emissivities as functions of frequencies and incidence and scattering angles for cases of interests in microwave remote sensing. Comparisons are made with the second-order small perturbation method and Kirchhoff's approximation to reestablish the regimes of validity of these methods     

Frequency dependence of scattering and extinction of dense media based on three-dimensional simulations of Maxwell's equations with applications to snow

The frequency dependence of scattering by geophysical media at microwave frequencies is an important topic because multifrequency measurements are used in remote sensing applications. In this paper, we study rigorously the frequency dependence of scattering by dense media using Monte Carlo simulations of the three-dimensional solutions of Maxwell's equations. The particle positions are generated by deposition and bonding techniques. The extinction, scattering, and absorption properties of dense media are calculated for dense media of sticky and nonsticky particles. Numerical solutions of Maxwell's equations indicate that the frequency dependence of densely packed sticky small particles are much weaker than that of independent scattering. Numerical results are illustrated using parameters of snow in microwave remote sensing. Comparisons are made with extinction measurements as a function of frequency.     

三因素及其交互作用对植物叶片多角度偏振高光谱特征的影响

在反射、散射和透射电磁辐射的过程中,植物叶片表面将产生与它们自身性质有关的偏振特征,完全可以作为遥感信息中有价值的信息来源.多角度对地观测能获得更为详细可靠的地面目标三维空间结构参数,使定量遥感成为可能.对植物叶片的多角度偏振高光谱探测成为定量遥感中的一种新手段.在分析植被叶片的多角度偏振高光谱特征基础之上,设计了一个3因素2水平的正交试验.通过对实验数据的方差分析发现,偏振角、入射天顶角、叶绿素以及三个因素之间的交互作用都可以对植物叶片的偏振反射产生影响,偏振角和入射天顶角对植物叶片的影响特别显著,二者的交互作用也有显著的影响.因此在今后的研究中,既要考虑单因素本身对植被叶片的偏振反射的影响,还要考虑到交互作用所起到的影响.     

The Use of Scattering Matrices in Microwave Circuits

Difficulties arising from the use of the impedance concept in microwave circuitry have led to the introduction of the scattering representation for work at these frequencies. This paper presents a development of the scattering approach in terms of fundamental transmission-line phenomena. The physical meaning of the quantities involved is brought out wherever possible and the relationships among the various elements of the scattering matrix are given. Several examples of the application of scattering techniques to analysis of the properties of microwave junctions are presented, and methods for measuring scattering parameters of such junctions are outlined.     

基于分形结构的植被高阶相干散射模型研究

电磁波低频入射情况下,植被中散射体独立不相关的假设无效,此时应考虑散射体之间的相干效应以及近场互作用。该文提出一种基于分形结构的植被高阶相干散射模型,该模型利用分形理论生成近乎真实植被的3维几何结构,根据每个散射体的空间位置信息考虑了相干效应,应用互易定理计算了相邻散射体间高阶互作用,结合非相干的分层模型中后向散射机制划分方式,给出了各项散射机制的表达式。与机载合成孔径雷达实验数据对比,验证了模型的准确性。在针叶林仿真参数下,分析了各项散射机制对总散射效应的贡献与入射频率、角度、植被结构的关系,结果表明,低频入射条件下,稀疏植被散射模型可进一步简化从而应用于参数反演中。     

基于二维粗糙面模型的大地土壤表面散射特性研究

建立二维粗糙面模型研究了大地土壤表面对高频超视距雷达电磁波的散射特性.采用半经验公式计算了HF频段给定频率下土壤媒质在不同温度、湿度时的有效相对介电常数,并与微波频段下情形进行对比.采用Monte Carlo法结合高斯谱函数生成二维粗糙面模拟真实大地土壤表面,建立了土壤表面积分方程,采用锥形波入射消除人为截断粗糙面带来的边缘衍射,采用基于物理意义的双网格法(Physics Based Two Grid,PBTG)结合稀疏网格迭代法(Sparse Matrix Canonical Grid,SMCG)求解土壤表面的双站散射系数.研究了不同温度和湿度条件下,大地土壤表面对高频超视距雷达电磁波的散射特性.研究结果为高频超视距雷达遥感探测提供了理论参考.     

相干扩展目标散射的近场效应

本文对相干扩展目标散射的近场效应进行了研究,通过计算机理想情况下由路径相关产生的干涉效应,验并澄清了扩展目标在不同入射情况下的散射干涉的物理机制,并在基础上引入了浅粗糙面散射的概念,这为准确定标遥感仪器,实现陆其遥感测量的定量化奠定了理论基础。     

海面掠入射散射特性及布儒斯特效应研究

海面掠入射散射特性对海洋遥感等问题有着重要应用,海面对雷达波束的镜面反射对海上超低空目标与海面的耦合场有着重要影响,利用海面的布儒斯特效应将有效削弱镜面反射。以西太平洋和东南沿海盐度场与温度场的卫星数据为基础,根据双Debye方程建立修正海水介电模型计算不同海域介电常数;基于Elfouhaily海谱模型,采用修正双尺度模型并考虑不同风速及频率下的截断波数,仿真分析了风速、频率、海水温度与盐度等因素对海面掠入射散射特性及布儒斯特效应的影响,总结归纳了海面布儒斯特效应产生机理和变化规律。分析表明:风速、频率及海水温度均会对海面布儒斯特效应产生影响。该研究为海洋环境的遥感探测及海上超低空目标的监测与跟踪提供了理论支撑。     

Microwave Emission and Scattering From Deserts: Theory Compared With Satellite Measurements

The emission and scattering from desert surfaces are analyzed using simulations and measurements from the Special Sensor Microwave/Imager (SSM/I) and the Advanced Microwave Sounding Unit (AMSU) microwave satellite instruments. Deserts are virtually free of vegetation, so the satellite radiometers are able to observe the emissivities of different minerals, such as limestone and quartz. Moreover, since deserts contain little moisture, the thermal emission originates below the surface at a depth of many wavelengths. At high frequencies, where the penetration depth of radiation is smallest, the radiometric measurements display the large diurnal variation in surface temperature, which reaches its maximum at around 1 P.M. Conversely, at low frequencies, where the penetration depth is largest, the radiation measurements display the small diurnal variation of subsurface temperature, which reaches a minimum at around 6 A.M. In addition to these emission signals, sand particles also scatter microwave radiation. Volume scattering causes the measurements to decrease as the frequency increases; although compared to other scattering media (snow cover and precipitation), the larger absorption and fractional volume (i.e., solidity) of sand reduce the scattering. Although the scattering effect is small, SSM/I measurements between 19 and 85 GHz show that deserts scatter the upwelling microwave radiation in a manner similar to light precipitation, which makes it difficult to uniquely identify precipitation over arid regions. Interestingly, the higher frequency AMSU measurement at 150 GHz is nearly the same as at 89 GHz for deserts, whereas the 150-GHz measurement is much lower than at 89 GHz for precipitation. These different spectral features at high frequencies can provide a means of separating the scattering from desert surfaces from that of precipitation.     

The Dielectric Properties of Wet Materials

In microwave remote sensing, knowledge of the dielectric properties of the materials observed (vegetation, soils) is important for the interpretation of the recorded reflection or emission and for the design of models for this reflection or emission. Although there exists no simple law which describes the properties of a heterogeneous system when the properties of its components are known, boundaries can be indicated for the permittivity of such a system. Heterogeneous systems containing water, such as wet soils and plant material, have very complex dielectric properties due to the role of the conductivity. However, at the higher microwave frequencies, in particular above the S-band, these conductivity effects play only a minor role and the free water is most important. When knowing the permittivity of wet materials the penetration depth can be determined. In all practical cases this depth is smaller than the wavelength used for the observations.     

Frequency dependence of scattering by dense media of smallparticles based on Monte Carlo simulation of Maxwell equations

The frequency dependence of extinction and scattering by geophysical medium at microwave frequencies is an important scattering topic because multifrequency measurements are used in remote sensing applications. Classical independent scattering theory states that if the particles are small, scattering is proportional to the fourth power in three-dimensional (3D) scattering and the third power in two-dimensional (2D) scattering. In this paper, the authors present Monte Carlo simulation results of dense media scattering. The dense media consists of densely packed small particles. Solutions are based on rigorous methods of generating dense media and subsequent numerical solutions of Maxwell's equation. Numerical simulations indicate that the frequency dependence of densely packed sticky particles is weaker than independent scattering     

Non-Lambertian Effects on Remote Sensing of Surface Reflectance and Vegetation Index

This paper discusses the effects of non-Lambertian reflection from a homogeneous surface on remote sensing of the surface reflectance and vegetation index from a satellite. Remote measurement of the surface characteristics is perturbed by atmospheric scattering of sun light. This scattering tends to smooth the angular dependence of non-Lambertian surface reflectances, an effect that is not present in the case of Lambertian surfaces. This effect is calculated to test the validity of a Lambertian assumption used in remote sensing. For the three types of vegetations considered in this study, the assumption of Lambertian surface can be used satisfactorily in the derivation of surface reflectance from remotely measured radiance for a view angle outside the backscattering region. Within the backscattering region, however, the use of the assumption can result in a considerable error in the derived surface reflectance. Accuracy also deteriorates with increasing solar zenith angle. The angular distribution of the surface reflectance derived from remote measurements is smoother than that at the surface. The effect of surface non-Lambertianity on remote sensing of vegetation index is very weak. Since the effect is similar in the visible and near infrared part of the solar spectrum for the vegetations treated in this study, it is canceled in deriving the vegetation index. The effect of the diffuse skylight on surface reflectance measurements at ground level is also discussed.     

Passive Microwave Remote Sensing of an Anisotropic Random-Medium Layer

The principle of reciprocity is invoked to calculate the brightness temperatures for passive microwave remote sensing of a twolayer anisotropic random medium. The bistatic scattering coefficients are first computed with the Born approximation and then integrated over the upper hemisphere to be subtracted from unity, in order to obtain the emissivity for the random-medium layer. The theoretical results are illustrated by plotting the emissivities as functions of viewing angles and polarizations. They are used to interpret remote sensing data obtained from vegetation canopy where the aniostropic randommedium model applies. Field measurements with corn stalks arranged in various configurations with preferred azimuthal directions are successfully interpreted with this model.     

三维随机粗糙海面与舰船的复合电磁特性的高频方法分析研究

3维随机粗糙海面与其上方复杂目标复合电磁(EM)散射特性的建模与分析在微波遥感、目标识别、雷达成像、导弹制导等领域中有着重要的研究价值。该文主要研究了基于高频算法的随机粗糙海面及舰船的复合电磁散射特性,开发了PO-IPO混合方法,为3维随机粗糙海面与复杂目标一体化高效求解提供了新思路。文中分别使用了物理光学方法(PO)、迭代物理光学方法(IPO)、PO-PO以及PO-IPO混合方法对海面及舰船进行了建模与仿真,其中,引入锥形波来代替平面波作为发射源,锥形波可以更好地抑制粗糙面在边缘位置被突然截断而形成的电磁反射和边缘绕射等效应。从数值仿真结果中可以看出,PO-IPO混合方法可将复杂物体本身面元间以及粗糙海面与物体间的耦合作用考虑在内,因此PO-IPO可以作为一种有效的途径来快速获取随机粗糙海面及舰船的复合电磁散射特性。      

Electromagnetic Scattering From Multilayer Rough Surfaces With Arbitrary Dielectric Profiles for Remote Sensing of Subsurface Soil Moisture

Radar remote sensing of soil moisture content at low frequencies requires an accurate scattering model of realistic soils, which often involves multilayer rough surfaces and dielectric profiles. In this paper, a hybrid analytical/numerical solution to two-dimensional scattering from multilayer rough surfaces separated by arbitrary dielectric profiles based on the extended boundary condition method (EBCM) and scattering matrix technique is presented. The reflection and transmission matrices of rough interfaces are constructed using EBCM. The dielectric profiles are modeled as stacks of piecewise homogeneous dielectric thin layers, whose scattering matrices are computed by recursively cascading reflection and transmission matrices of individual dielectric interfaces. The interactions between the rough interfaces and stratified dielectric profiles are taken into account by applying the generalized scattering matrix technique. The scattering coefficients are obtained by combining the powers computed from the resulting Floquet modes of the overall system. The bistatic scattering coefficients are validated against existing analytical and numerical solutions. Field-collected soil moisture data are then used for numerical simulations to investigate the penetration capability at different frequencies and to address the potential of low-frequency radar systems in estimating deep soil moisture. In particular, soil moisture profiles during dry ground, wet ground, and wet subsurface layer conditions are examined. The results show that both backscattering coefficients and copolarized phase difference at low frequencies are sensitive to the roughness of subsurface interfaces and deep soil moisture. Also, much larger depth sensitivity can be achieved using copolarized phase difference than scattering coefficients     

军事科技中的微波遥感信息技术

空间微波遥感信息技术的发展与国家安全、军事环境监测、导弹制导、背景中目标识别与跟踪、军事预警、电子对抗等军事高科技有着十分密切的关系。本文讨论我们的微波遥感信息研究在现今军事科技中几个方面的应用。其中包括导弹制导时地表散射杂波的模拟与多谱勒频移的仿真,合成孔径雷达(SAR)图像中船行尾迹对海面舰船的识别,浅海水下地形的反演,低掠角入射海面与舰船的双站散射模拟,从SAR,SSM／I(SpecialSensorMicrowave／Imager)星载微波主被动遥感图像数据反演特定区域的气象等环境特征。     

Microwave Scattering from the Ocean Surface (Short Papers)

This paper reviews current aircraft and satellite programs which use microwaves to measure ocean wave and surface wind conditions. These particular measurements have been identified by the user community as offering significant economic and technological benefits. Active microwave remote sensing techniques for these applications have been described theoretically and verified experimentally. The results of recent aircraft and satellite experimental programs are presented herein along with plans for the SeaSat-A satellite scatterometer (SASS).     

Sensitivity to soil moisture by active and passive microwavesensors

The backscatter measured by radar and the emission measured by a radiometer are both very sensitive to the moisture content m_υ of bare-soil surfaces. Vegetation cover complicates the scattering and emission processes, and it has been presumed that the addition of vegetation masks the soil surface, thereby reducing the radiometric and radar soil-moisture sensitivities. Even though researchers working in the field of microwave remote sensing of soil moisture are all likely to agree with the preceding two statements, numerous claims and counterclaims have been voiced, primarily at symposia and workshops, espousing the superiority of the radiometric technique over the radar, or vice versa. The discussion is often reduced to disagreements over the answer to the following question “Which of the two sensing techniques is less impacted by vegetation cover?” This paper is an attempt to answer that question. Using realistic radiative-transfer models for the emission and backscatter, calculations were performed for three types of canopies, all at 1.5 GHz. The results lead to two major conclusions. First, the accepted presumption that vegetation cover reduces the soil-moisture sensitivity is not always true. Over certain ranges of the optical depth τ of the vegetation canopy and the roughness of the soil surface, vegetation cover can enhance, not reduce, the radar sensitivity to soil moisture. The second conclusion is that under most vegetation and soil-surface conditions, the radiometric and radar soil-moisture sensitivities decrease with increasing τ, and the rates are approximately the same for both sensors, suggesting that at least as far as vegetation effects are concerned, neither sensor can claim superiority over the other     

下垫面微波散射信息提取

基于动态规划算法(DPA)提出一种分析植被弱散射分量的方法。首先,通过改进的密歇根模型(MIMICS)得到水稻的散射分量组成,输出结果与同步陆基散射实验数据以及国外多名学者在合成孔径雷达(SAR)实验中一致;然后,将动态规划算法结合入射角与极化信息建立多维状态向量和递推决策,弱散射分量的叠加在动态规划算法中实现了应用,因此下垫面的类型可以被有效提取;最后,通过实验数据对结果进行比较分析,结果验证了该方法的有效性。     

Inferring Vegetation Water Content From C- and L-Band SAR Images

This paper addresses the capability of synthetic aperture radar and optical images in combination with theoretical models to detect the vegetation water content (VWC) at field level. In this paper, a retrieval algorithm for the estimation of VWC from AirSAR acquired on vegetated fields during the SMEX'02 experiment is addressed. The aforementioned campaign has been chosen because, along with sensor observations, extensive ground truth measurements were acquired. The retrieval procedure, which is based on a Bayesian approach, has been initially developed for soil moisture extraction. It consists of two modules: one is pertinent to bare soils and the other one has been modified for vegetated fields. The last one uses the synergy with optical images to correct for the contribution of VWC. The VWC, a variable in the inversion procedure, as well as soil moisture can be estimated. The results indicate a good correlation with both ground measurements and VWC calculated from Landsat images through the use of normalized difference water index (NDWI). Furthermore, in the inversion procedure, the introduction of the dependence on roughness improves the estimates. This indicates that, even for dense vegetation, the contribution from bare soil greatly influences the radar signal. Three main levels of VWC are discriminated in the inversion procedure: values below 1 kg/m², values between 1 and 3 kg/m², and values greater than 3 kg/m².