Individual and environmental factors associated with defecation while lying down in dairy cows

Cows typically defecate while standing. Freestalls are designed to position standing cows such that their feces fall into the alley. Cows sometimes defecate while lying down, increasing the risk that feces contaminate the stall surface. We conducted 2 studies investigating cow-level and environmental factors associated with defecating while recumbent. In experiment 1, we hypothesized that conditions making it more difficult for cows to stand up (including greater age, high body weight, pregnancy, and lameness) would increase the risk of this behavior. We followed 92 cows for 12 d, scanning stalls 5 times/d using live observation. Almost half (48%) of all cows defecated while recumbent at least once; cows that spent more time lying down and that were earlier in gestation were at highest risk. Weight, parity, age, and lameness were not associated with this behavior. In experiment 2, we tested how overstocking influenced the occurrence of defecating while recumbent. We predicted overstocking would increase the occurrence of this behavior, especially when cows were in stalls at more preferred locations. We recorded stall occupancy, displacement attempts, and defecating while recumbent in 4 groups of 36 cows tested at both 100% and 150% lying stall stocking densities for 2 nights each using a crossover design. Overstocking resulted in higher stall use and more displacements, but less lying and fewer perching events. We did not detect any relationship between use of specific stalls or competition and defecating while recumbent. Most recorded displacements were associated with perching. Increased time perching increased the likelihood of defecating while recumbent, perhaps because perching cows were less dominant or more reluctant to stand up once lying down in the stall. Overstocking did not increase defecating while recumbent, likely because cows spent less time lying down. Together, these results indicate that defecating while recumbent can be common, and points to some of the cow-level factors associated with this behavior.     

Making tiestalls more comfortable: III. Providing additional lateral space to improve the resting capacity and comfort of dairy cows

Dairy cows housed in tiestalls are restricted to one space; therefore, this space should be designed to accommodate all the activities cows need to perform. Lying is a very important behavior for dairy cows as well as a critical measure in the assessment of stall designs, to ensure that the cows' needs for resting space are met. The objective of this study was to determine if increasing tiestall width alters the lying behavior of lactating dairy cows. Two treatments were compared: the current recommendation (139 cm) and a double stall (284 cm). Sixteen cows were blocked by parity and lactation stage, then randomly allocated to a treatment and a stall within 1 of 2 rows in the research barn, for 6 wk. The average stall length was 188 cm. Leg-mounted accelerometers were used to record lying behaviors. Cows were video-recorded 24 h/wk using surveillance cameras positioned above the stalls. Video data from wk 1, 3, and 6 were extracted at a rate of 1 image/min and analyzed by a trained observer to assess the position and the location of the cow's body, head, and limbs during the lying hours. Lying behaviors and frequency of each position and location were analyzed in SAS (SAS Institute Inc., Cary, NC) using a mixed model in which treatment, block, and week were included as fixed factors, and cow and row as random factors. Multiple comparisons were adjusted using the Scheffé method. Results indicate that cows in double stalls fully extended their hindlimbs more often than single stall cows (21.7 vs. 7.6% of lying time). Cows in double stalls also intruded in the neighboring stalls with their hindlimbs less often (1.3 vs. 14.7% of lying time), instead positioning them inside their own stall more often (92.7 vs. 84.6% of lying time). Use of the second stall in the double stall group totaled 11.6, 5.1, 33.8, and 18.0% of lying time, respectively, for the head, front legs, hind legs, and body. Total lying time was not statistically different between double (716 min/d) and single stall (671 min/d) groups. Contacts with stall hardware during lying-down movements were also less frequent in double stalls (43.1 vs. 77.1% of lying events) compared with single stalls. These results suggest that dairy cows housed in double stalls modified their resting habits and used the extra space made available to them. Increasing stall width beyond the current recommendation is likely to benefit the cows by improving their ability to rest.     

Using time-lapse video photography to assess dairy cattle lying behavior in a free-stall barn

The objectives of this observational study were to use time-lapse video photography to document dairy cow behavioral patterns, examine factors affecting lying behavior, and to develop guidelines for visual assessment of free-stall usage during summer conditions in a high producing dairy. Four video cameras were placed in a free-stall pen containing 144 stalls and 129 high producing cows. The videos were recorded over a 6-d period in July 1999 and then were reviewed using 60-min scan sampling techniques. Cows were counted as lying, standing in alley without eating, standing in free stalls, or eating in each of the four sections of the pen. Temperature probes were placed on the feedline, free stalls, on both ends of the pen, and at an outside location. Relationships between proportion eligible lying and ambient temperature, feeding time, and time since milking were examined. Proportion eligible lying was equal to number of cows lying divided by total number of cows lying or standing but not eating. Cattle showed a significant pattern of temporal cyclicity in their lying behavior, with the highest average proportion of eligible cows lying at 6:00 a.m. (85%) and the lowest at 9:00 p.m. (53%). Increasing environmental temperatures and time elapsed since milking negatively impacted proportion of eligible cows observed lying when evaluated using 60-min scan sampling techniques.     

Short communication: The diurnal intake and behavior of dairy cows when access to a feed of consistent nutritive value is restricted

The diurnal variation in pasture nutritive value adds a confounding factor to studies elucidating the effect of time of day on behavior. Our work separates the effect of time of day on both feeding and lying patterns for cows outdoors to enable the alignment of feeding behavior with feed management. We determined the diurnal intake patterns and behavior of dairy cows when the nutritive value of feed remained constant throughout 24 h in an outdoor environment, and when feed access was restricted. Nine nonlactating Holstein-Friesian cows (live weight 626 ± 53 kg, age 96 ± 33 mo; mean ± SD) were split into 3 groups of 3 and offered lucerne hay cubes (cube volume 32 mm³) ad libitum according to 3 treatments: full access (FA, feed access 24 h), day access (DA, feed access between 0600 and 1800 h), and night access (NA, feed access between 1800 and 0600 h). Treatments were applied to individual cows in a crossover design with 7-d periods. During the last 4 d of each period, data were collected on feed intake, as well as feeding and lying behaviors. Total daily intake was greater for cows on the FA treatment (3.5% of BW) compared with the DA and NA treatments at 3.1 and 2.9% of BW, respectively. The cows with FA consumed 69% of their total intake during the day (0600–1800 h), with the greatest intake (39%) occurring during 1200 to 1800 h and only 12% of intake occurring during 2400 to 0600 h. Cows with DA consumed 56% of feed during 0600 to 1200 h and 44% during 1200 to 1800 h. In contrast, NA cows consumed more feed (74%) during the first 6 h period (1800–2400 h), thus maximizing lying time between 2400 and 0600 h. The time spent lying throughout daylight periods varied between treatments; however, total daily lying time was similar across the 3 treatments. This experiment shows the feeding and lying behaviors of cows when feed quality remains constant throughout 24 h, which will assist the formulation of variable feed allocation strategies for future testing in both robotic and conventional milking systems. Varying the quantity of feed offered throughout 24 h may benefit robot utilization at night in automatic milking systems through increased feeding activity, and as we observed, is likely to have little effect on lying time or DMI, with cows readily adapting to changes in feed management. Conversely, aligning feed on offer with preferred feeding time in conventional milking systems may increase the intake of high quality pasture.     

Improving stall design: use of 3-D kinematics to measure space use by dairy cows when lying down

Uncomfortable stalls reduce the time cows spend resting and are a risk factor for lameness. Although recommendations for stall dimensions are available, little research supports these recommendations. In this study, kinematic techniques were used to provide the first accurate measures of space used by Holstein dairy cows during lying-down movements in an open space and in a free stall. Cows (n=5, mean parity 3.2 +/- 1.0, body weight=607 +/- 21 kg) used up to 300 cm of longitudinal space when lying down, more than is typically provided by current industry recommendations for stall length. Cows used up to 109 cm of lateral space (180% of hip width), an estimate that is within current recommendations for stall width. During the lying-down movement, maximal lateral displacements at the hip occurred in two vertical zones: one between 95 and 135 cm, and the second less than 50 cm above the lying surface. Maximal longitudinal displacements of the nose were clustered 10 to 30 cm above the surface. These heights should be taken into account when designing and positioning stall partitions. Maximum instantaneous velocity of body markers approached 220 cm/s, indicating that cows can contact inappropriately placed stall partitions and the lying surface with considerable force. Kinematic techniques are promising ways of assessing spatial requirements of cattle to improve stall design. Further work is required to assess a wider range of cow sizes and stall configurations.     

Effects of flooring and restricted freestall access on behavior and claw health of dairy heifers

Claw health, locomotion, feed intake, milk yield, body weight, activity, and lying and standing behavior of dairy heifers were monitored in a single dairy herd during the first 3 mo after calving. During the first 8 wk after calving, 2 treatments were applied: restricted freestall access by closing the stalls between 2300 h and 0500 h (yes or no) and alley flooring (concrete or rubber topped slatted floors). Apart from treatments, housing was identical. The animals were kept in small groups (n = 4 to 6) in adjacent barn pens. Thereafter, the animals were kept in 1 group in a freestall section with concrete slatted floor and unrestricted access to the stalls for 5 wk. All animals were fed the same partial mixed ration. We hypothesized that (1) hard flooring causes high mechanical load of the claws and (2) restricted freestall access causes prolonged standing bouts and reinforced effects of hard flooring on claws. The heifers had only minor claw lesions before first calving, and the prevalence and severity of sole hemorrhages increased during the first 3 mo after calving (from 0.24 ± 0.08 to 1.18 ± 0.14 and from 0.04 ± 0.01 to 0.24 ± 0.02, respectively), particularly in the outer hind claws. Animals kept on rubber alley flooring had lower average hemorrhage scores in wk 9 (0.13 ± 0.03 vs. 0.21 ± 0.03) and wk 14 (0.20 ± 0.03 vs. 0.27 ± 0.03) after calving, had a slower feed intake (3.05 ± 0.14 vs. 3.46 ± 0.14 g/s) and spent more time feeding (7.3 ± 0.3 vs. 6.6 ± 0.3 min/h) than animals kept on hard concrete alley floors. Restricted freestall access resulted in fewer standing bouts per day (14.4 ± 1.0 vs. 17.9 ± 1.0) and more strides per hour (99.8 ± 5.4 vs. 87.2 ± 5.4) without changing overall standing time (15.0 ± 0.3 vs. 14.7 ± 0.3 h/d) and did not affect the occurrence of sole hemorrhages. The animals with no overnight freestall access spent more time standing (55.9 ± 0.9 vs. 35.8 ± 0.9 min/h) and feeding (7.8 ± 0.3 vs. 4.3 ± 0.3 min/h) between 2300 and 0500 h and less during the rest of the 24-h period (31.3 ± 0.8 vs. 37.0 ± 0.8 min/h and 6.8 ± 0.3 vs. 7.6 ± 0.3 min/h). Thus, the animals adapted to restricted freestall access, that caused increased overnight standing, by additional lying down during the day and used part of the extra standing time at night for feeding. The restrictions probably had only a minor effect on the mechanical load of their claws. Therefore, the first part of the hypothesis was confirmed and the second part was rejected.     

Two- or four-hour lying deprivation on the behavior of lactating dairy cows

Cows are often temporarily deprived of the opportunity to lie down while waiting for veterinary or reproductive procedures. Sixty cows were deprived of the opportunity to lie down for 0, 2, or 4 h by confining them in pairs in a small indoor pen. Behavior was recorded during deprivation and for 40 h afterwards. In the first 2 and 4 h of the experiment, cows that were not deprived chose to lie down for 70 and 142 min, respectively. When cows were discouraged from lying, they regularly stomped their legs, repositioned themselves, but never lay down. In the 4-h treatment, both stomping and repositioning increased after the first hour. Butting and weight shifting (displacing weight from one side of the body to the other) increased during deprivation, indicating restlessness. Cows deprived for 4 h sniffed and rubbed their heads against the housing more than cows deprived for 0 or 2 h. Time spent feeding and standing without ruminating increased with the duration of deprivation, especially during the early stages; standing ruminating also increased in the final stages. After deprivation, feeding time decreased, which compensated for the increase during deprivation. By 40 h after deprivation, the lying-deprived cows had recovered approximately 40% of their lost lying time. Milk yield was not affected by lying deprivation. It is concluded that cows experience discomfort during short periods of lying deprivation, after which they recover some, but not all, of the lost lying time by rescheduling feeding and standing time.     

Effects of sawdust bedding dry matter on lying behavior of dairy cows: A dose-dependent response

The objective was to determine the effect of sawdust bedding dry matter on the lying behavior of Holstein cows. Dry matter (DM) was varied systematically over 5 treatment levels to test how cows respond to damp bedding. This experiment was repeated during summer and winter to test if the effects of damp bedding varied with season. The 5 bedding treatments averaged (±SD) 89.8 ± 3.7, 74.2 ± 6.4, 62.2 ± 6.3, 43.9 ± 4.0, and 34.7 ± 3.8% DM. Over the course of the trial, minimum and maximum temperatures in the barn were 2.6 ± 2.0 and 6.8 ± 2.2°C in the winter and 13.3 ± 2.5 and 22.6 ± 4.1°C in the summer. In both seasons, 5 groups of 3 nonlactating cows were housed in free stalls bedded with sawdust. Following a 5-d acclimation period on dry bedding, groups were exposed to the 5 bedding treatments in a 5 × 5 Latin square. Each treatment lasted 4 d, followed by 1 d when the cows were provided with dry bedding. Stall usage was assessed by 24-h video scanned at 5-min intervals. Responses were analyzed within group (n = 5) as the observational unit. Bedding DM affected lying time, averaging 10.4 ± 0.4 h/d on the wettest treatment and increasing to 11.5 ± 0.4 h/d on the driest bedding. Lying time varied with season, averaging 12.1 ± 0.4 h/d across treatments during the winter and 9.9 ± 0.6 h/d during the summer, but season and bedding DM did not interact. These results indicate that access to dry bedding is important for dairy cows.     

Factors affecting stall use for different freestall bases

The objective of this study was to compare stall use (stall occupancy and cow position) by barn side for factors affecting stall use. A closed circuit television system recorded stall use four times per day for a 9-mo period starting May 9, 2001. Six factors were analyzed: stall base, distance to water, stall location within stall base section, stall location within barn, inside barn temperature, and length of time cows were exposed to stall bases. Two barn sides with different stocking densities were analyzed: low (66%), with cows milked by robotic milker; and high (100%), with cows milked 2X in parlor. Six stall base types were tested: two mattresses, a waterbed, a rubber mat, concrete, and sand (high side only). The base types were grouped 3 to 7 stalls/section and randomly placed in each row. Cows spent more time in mattress-based stalls, but the highest percentage lying was in sand-based stalls. The following significant stall occupancy percentages were found: sand had the highest percentage of cows lying on the high stocking density side (69%), followed by mattress type 1 (65%) > mattress type 2 (57%) > waterbed (45%) > rubber mat (33%) > concrete (23%). Mattress type 1 had the highest percentage stalls occupied (88%), followed by mattress type 2 (84%) > sand (79%) > soft rubber mat (65%) > waterbed (62%) > concrete (39%). On the low stocking rate side, mattress type 1 had the highest percentage cows lying (45%) and occupied (59.6%), followed by mattress type 2 > waterbed > soft rubber mat > concrete. Cow lying and stalls occupied percentages were highest for stalls 1) not at the end of a section, and 2) on the outside row, and varied by base type for time cows exposed to stalls and inside barn temperature. Lying and occupied percentages were different for different mattress types. The percentage of stalls with cows standing was higher for mat and mattress-based stalls. Results show mattress type 1 and sand to be superior and rubber mats and concrete inferior stall bases.     

Effect of softer flooring in tie stalls on resting behavior and leg injuries of lactating cows

To test the advantages of softer flooring in tie stalls, we compared the behavior and injuries of dairy cows housed in tie stalls with either soft rubber mats (n = 12) or concrete flooring (n = 12), both lightly covered with straw. Data were collected for 112 d beginning at 14 DIM (±4 d). Cows’ general activity was observed continuously for 24 h every 28 d. Behavior was also scored by a scan sampling technique every 14 d such that each cow was observed for a period of 3 min every 12 min. We scored the occurrence of leg lesions and other injuries every 7 d throughout the study. Cows on rubber mats had shorter bouts of lying but the frequency of bouts was higher, leading them to tend to spend more time lying compared with cows housed on concrete. Cows on concrete spent more time standing idle, but there was no difference in the time spent eating. There was no effect of stall flooring on the number of minor abrasions to the legs and body. There was a significantly higher incidence of swelling of the carpus joints for cows housed on concrete. Cows housed on soft rubber flooring appeared to be less hesitant to change posture from lying to standing (and vice versa), and as a result changed posture more frequently and spent more time lying than cows on concrete flooring. The decreased incidence of swelling of the carpus joint for cows on soft rubber mats may have important long-term effects in preventing a variety of leg problems.     

Prevalence of and factors associated with hock,knee, and neck injuries on dairy cows in freestall housing in Canada

Injuries are a widespread problem in the dairy industry. The objective of this study was to determine the prevalence of and explore the animal-based and environmental factors associated with hock, knee, and neck injuries on dairy cows in freestall housing in Ontario and Alberta, Canada. Freestall dairy farms in the provinces of Ontario (n = 40) and Alberta (n = 50) were visited for cross-sectional data collection. A purposive sample of 40 lactating Holstein cows was selected for detailed observation on each farm. Cows were scored for hock, knee, and neck injuries on a 3- or 4-point scale, combining the attributes of hair loss, broken skin, and swelling and with a higher score indicating a more severe injury. The highest hock and highest knee score were used in the analysis. Animal-based and environmental measures were taken to explore which factors were associated with injury. Overall, the prevalence of cows with at least one hock, knee, and neck injury was 47, 24, and 9%, respectively. Lame cows had a greater odds of hock injury [odds ratio (OR) = 1.46] than nonlame cows, whereas cows with fewer days in milk (DIM) had reduced odds of hock injury compared with those >120 DIM (OR = 0.47, 0.64, and 0.81 for <50, 50–82, and 83–120 DIM, respectively). The odds of hock injury was lower on sand (OR = 0.07) and concrete (OR = 0.44) stall bases in comparison to mattresses. Conversely, the odds of knee injury was greater on concrete (OR = 3.19) stall bases compared with mattresses. Cows in parity 1 (OR = 0.45 and 0.27 for knee and neck injury, respectively) and 2 (OR = 0.49 and 0.40 for knee and neck injury, respectively) had lower odds of knee and neck injury compared with cows in parity 4+. Low feed rail heights increased the odds of neck injury (OR = 76.71 for rails between 128 and 140 cm and OR = 43.82 for rails ≤128 cm). The odds of knee injury was greater on farms where any cows were observed slipping or falling when moving into the holding area for milking (OR = 2.69) and lower on farms with rubber flooring in the alley along the feed bunk compared with bare concrete floors (OR = 0.19). These results demonstrate that individual animal characteristics, as well as barn design and animal management, are associated with hock, knee, and neck injuries. These data can help to guide investigations into causes and prevention of injuries.     

The stall-design paradox: Neck rails increase lameness but improve udder and stall hygiene

Housing conditions for dairy cows are thought to affect lameness, but almost no experimental work has addressed this link. The aim was to assess the effect of one feature of free-stall design, the position of the neck rail, testing the prediction that cows will be more likely to become lame if using pens with the neck rail positioned such that it prevents standing fully inside the stall. Cows (n = 32) were housed in 8 pens. Treatments were tested using a crossover design; treatments were allocated alternately to pens at the beginning of the experiment and switched halfway through the 10-wk experiment. Cows spent 27 ± 3 min/d standing with all 4 feet in stalls with less restrictive neck rails. In contrast, cows averaged just 1 ± 3 min/d when the neck rail was positioned restrictively. Cows spent less time standing with only the front 2 feet in the stall with less restrictive neck rails (33 vs. 49 ± 6 min/d). Gait scores improved when cows were kept in the less restrictive stalls and worsened when cows were kept in pens with the restrictive neck rail (median score 2.5 vs. 3.5 after 5 wk on treatment). Of 13 new cases of lameness, 11 occurred in pens with the restrictive neck-rail position. Similarly, of the 16 new cases of sole lesions, 15 occurred during the period when cows were housed in pens with a restrictive neck rail. Stalls with the neck rail positioned less restrictively had higher contamination scores than stalls with the restrictive neck rails (3.7 vs. 0.4 ± 0.2), and cows using those stalls had dirtier udders and longer teat-cleaning times (8.3 vs. 7.0 ± 0.2 min for 12 cows). This study provides the first experimental evidence that aspects of stall design can reduce the risk of lameness and hoof disease. The results illustrated that changes in design that resulted in improvements in cow comfort and hoof health came at the expense of cow and stall cleanliness.     

Relationship between feeding strategy, lying behavior patterns, and incidence of intramammary infection in dairy cows

The objectives of this study were to investigate whether feeding strategy influences post-milking standing time in dairy cows and to determine whether this time relates to incidence of intramammary infection (IMI). Fifteen lactating dairy cows (5 most recently fresh, 10 randomly chosen) from each of 6 tie stall dairy farms were enrolled for a total of 90 cows. Quarter samples of milk were taken from each cow once every 3 wk for a total of 3 samplings, and routine bacteriological culture and identification procedures were conducted. National Mastitis Council guidelines were used to define IMI, and occurrence of a new IMI was defined as a positive culture sample following a negative culture sample. Data on lying behavior patterns were collected using data loggers for every cow for 7 d before each milk sampling. For these 7 d, individual milking and feeding times of the cows were also recorded. Our results demonstrated that the provision of feed around milking time (between 30 min before and 60 min after) resulted in the longest post-milking standing times. The shortest post-milking standing times were seen in those cows that were fed >30 min before milking. Feeding cows >60 min after milking resulted in only slightly shorter post-milking standing times than those fed between 30 min before and 60 min after milking. Cows lying down for the first time 40 to 60 min after milking had 1.4 times lower odds of acquiring a new environmental IMI than cows lying down within 40 min after milking. As post-milking standing time increased past 60 min, the odds of acquiring a new environmental IMI increased as well. The cows lying down for the first time 60 to 90, 90 to 120, and >120 min after milking showed 3.2, 5.8, and 7.4 times higher odds, respectively, of acquiring a new environmental IMI compared with cows lying down for the first time within 40 min of milking. Our results suggest that despite being able to manage post-milking standing times by providing fresh feed at different times around milking, the use of such a feeding strategy in tie stall systems is an unrealistic IMI prevention strategy.     

Short communication: Effects of mammary biopsy in the dry period on activity and feeding behavior of dairy cows

In dairy cattle, mammary biopsies are commonly used to study development and function of the mammary gland. The objective of this study was to investigate changes in activity and feeding patterns following the mammary biopsy procedure. Pregnant, nonlactating Holstein dairy cows (20 d before expected calving date) were exposed to either (1) a biopsy procedure, in which a mammary tissue sample (60 × 4 mm in diameter) was obtained from cows (n = 9) using a biopsy tool from the rear left quarter, following administration of a sedative (xylazine, 20 µg/kg of body weight) and local anesthetic (3 mL of lidocaine), or (2) a sham procedure, in which cows (n = 8) were removed from the pen and restrained for a similar duration of time as for the biopsy procedure. Behavior of cows was monitored for 5 d, beginning on the day following biopsy (approximately 14 h after the procedure). Cows were fitted with accelerometers to record daily lying time, lying bout frequency, and lying side. Daily individual feed intake was recorded using the Calan Broadbent feeding system, and feeding time and meal characteristics were determined from a subset of cows (n = 6 per treatment) using a change-of-state data logger to record the times the cows were accessing the feed bunk. Total daily lying time did not differ between treatments [13.9 h/d; standard error (SE) = 0.56], but biopsied cows had more frequent, shorter lying bouts on the biopsied side on d 1 following the procedure (6.67 vs. 4.25 bouts/d, SE = 1.03, and 70.0 vs. 97.0 min/bout, SE = 8.6; left vs. right side), whereas control cows had no side preference. We found no effects of treatment on feed intake and feeding time but, on the first day after treatment, biopsied cows had meals that were more frequent (7.2 vs. 4.6 meals/d; SE = 0.93) and tended to be shorter (28.2 vs. 60.9 min/meal; SE = 11.8) than control cows. In conclusion, we did not detect effects of mammary biopsy on feed intake or lying time during our time frame of observation, but activity patterns were altered, which could be indicative of increased overall restlessness and specific pain in the biopsied quarter.     

Neck-rail position in the free stall affects standing behavior and udder and stall cleanliness

This study tested the effect of neck-rail position on stall usage and udder and stall cleanliness. Thirty Holstein lactating cows were tested in groups of 6. Each group was tested with each of 5 neck-rail positions (130, 145, 160, 175, and 190 cm from the rear curb, at a constant height of 125 cm above the bedded surface) for 1 wk, with the order of testing allocated in a 5 × 5 Latin square. When the neck rail was positioned further from the rear curb, cows spent less time standing with their front 2 hooves in the stall (2.2 ± 0.26 h/d at 130 cm vs. 1.7 ± 0.27 h/d at 190 cm, mean ± SE) and more time standing with all 4 hooves in the stall (0.0 ± 0.02 h/d at 130 cm vs. 0.6 ± 0.07 h/d at 190 cm). These effects of neck-rail position tended to be more marked for smaller cows, perhaps because the standing behavior of larger cows was restricted even in the 190-cm treatment. Cows were more likely to defecate and urinate in the stalls when the neck rail was positioned further from the rear curb. Cows using these stalls tended to have dirtier udders and these stalls required more cleaning time (0.4 ± 0.16 min/d at the 130-cm position vs. 1.6 ± 0.35 min/d at the 190-cm position). In summary, positioning the neck rail further from the curb increased the time that cows spent standing fully in the stall. This change in standing behavior is likely beneficial for hoof health, but reduced udder and stall cleanliness.     

Associations between herd-level factors and lying behavior of freestall-housed dairy cows

Our objective was to investigate the associations between herd-level factors and lying behavior of high-producing dairy cows housed in freestall barns. Lying behavior of approximately 40 focal cows in one high-producing pen was monitored on each of 40 farms in the northeastern United States (NE) and 39 farms in California (CA). All cows within the pen were gait scored using a 1-to-5 scale to calculate the prevalence of clinical lameness (score ≥3) and severe lameness (score ≥4). Facility and management measures, including stall design, bedding, and flooring type within the pen, were collected. Herd-level factors associated with daily lying time, standard deviation (SD) of daily lying time, frequency of lying bouts, and lying bout duration at the univariate level were submitted to multivariable general linear models. In the NE, daily lying time increased with the use of deep bedding (estimate = 0.80 ± 0.31 h/d) and as average days in milk (DIM) of the focal cows increased (estimate = 0.08 ± 0.04 h/d for a 10-d increase in DIM). The SD of daily lying time decreased as stall stocking density increased (estimate = −0.08 ± 0.03 h/d for a 10% increase), and increased with the presence of rubber flooring in the pen (estimate = 0.16 ± 0.08 h/d) and percentage of stalls with fecal contamination (estimate = 0.04 ± 0.01 h/d for a 10% increase). Frequency of lying bouts decreased (estimate = −1.90 ± 0.63 bouts/d) and average bout duration increased (estimate = 15.44 ± 3.02 min) with the use of deep bedding. In CA, where all farms used deep bedding, daily lying time increased as average DIM of the focal cows increased (estimate = 0.08 ± 0.03 h/d for a 10-d increase). The SD of daily lying time decreased when feed was delivered more than once per day (estimate = −0.24 ± 0.08 h/d). The percentage of lame cows was correlated with the percentage of stalls with fecal contamination (r = 0.45), which in turn was associated with fewer (estimate = −0.25 ± 0.06 bouts/d) and longer lying bouts (estimate = 1.85 ± 0.39 min/d). These findings suggest that lying time be interpreted in conjunction with variability in lying time and bout structure and in context with lameness prevalence, production parameters, and facility characteristics.     

Feed stalls affect the social and feeding behavior of lactating dairy cows

The first objective of this study was to study the effects of increased bunk space on the frequency of aggressive behavior at the feed bunk and on feed access. The second objective was to determine whether the addition of partitions (feed stalls) between adjacent cows would provide additional protection while feeding, particularly for subordinate cows. Twenty-four lactating Holstein cows were subjected to each of 3 treatments in 3 successive 10-d treatment periods using a 3 × 3 Latin square design. The treatments tested were: 1) 0.64 m of feed bunk space/cow, 2) 0.92 m of feed bunk space/cow, and 3) feed stalls (0.87 m of feed bunk space/cow with feed stall partitions separating adjacent cows). Time-lapse video was used to quantify the feeding and standing behavior, as well as the aggressive behavior (displacements) displayed by the cows at the feed bunk. To meet our first and second objectives, we compared data from the 0.64 m/cow treatment with that from the 0.92 m/cow treatment, and data from the 0.92 m/cow treatment with that from the feed-stall treatment, respectively. Total daily feeding time increased when feed bunk space was increased from 0.64 to 0.92 m/cow. Further, the time spent standing in the feeding area while not feeding and the frequency of aggressive interactions at the feed bunk decreased when more bunk space was provided. The addition of feed stalls resulted in more pronounced effects compared with when cows had 0.92 m/cow of bunk space. The feed stalls also forced cows to change the strategy by which they displaced others from the feed bunk, forcing them to also initiate contact at the rear of the animal they were displacing rather than only from the front and side, as in the other 2 treatments. Further, when the cows were provided with additional feeding space, particularly when combined with feed stalls, those cows with lower social status at the feed bunk experienced the greatest decreases in the number of times they were displaced per day. The results indicated that providing increased feed bunk space, particularly when combined with feed stalls, will improve access to the feed and reduce competition at the feed bunk, particularly for subordinate cows.     

Risk factors for lameness and hock injuries in Holstein herds in China

The objective was to investigate the association between herd-level management and facility design and the prevalence of lameness and hock injuries in high-producing dairy cows on commercial freestall farms in China. Housing and management measures, such as stall design, bedding type, and milking routine were collected for the high-producing pen in 34 farms in China. All cows in the pen were gait scored using a 5-point scale, and evaluated for hock injuries using a 3-point scale. Measures associated with the proportion of clinically (score ≥3) or severely (score ≥4) lame cows, and the proportion of cows having at least a minor hock injury (score ≥2) or severe injury (score = 3) at the univariable level were submitted to multivariable general linear models. The prevalence [mean ± SD (range)] of clinical and severe lameness were 31 ± 12 (7–51) and 10 ± 6% (0– 27%), respectively, and the prevalence of cows with at least a minor hock injury and with severe injuries was 40 ± 20 (6 – 95) and 5 ± 9% (0 – 50%), respectively. The prevalence of clinical lameness and severe lameness decreased with herd size (estimate = −0.35 ± 0.09% for a 100-cow increase for clinical lameness; estimate = 0.15 ± 0.06% for a 100-cow increase for severe lameness). Prevalence increased with barn age >9 yr (estimate = 12.73 ± 4.42% for clinical lameness; estimate = 5.79 ± 2.89% for severe lameness). These 2 variables combined explained 49% of the variation in clinical lameness and 30% of the variation in severe lameness. The prevalence of all hock injuries and severe hock injuries decreased with deep bedding (estimate = −20.90 ± 5.66% for all hock injuries; estimate = −3.65 ± 1.41% for severe hock injuries) and increased with barn age >9 yr (estimate = 16.68 ± 7.17% for all hock injuries; estimate = 6.95 ± 1.75% for severe injuries). These 2 variables explained 52 and 58% of the variation, respectively. In conclusion, large variation existed across farms in prevalence of lameness and hock injuries. Changes in housing and management may help control the prevalence of lameness and hock injuries in the emerging dairy industry in China.     

Stocking density,milking duration,and lying times of lactating cows on Canadian freestall dairy farms

Lying time is an important measure of cow comfort, and the lying behavior of dairy cattle can now be recorded automatically with the use of accelerometers. To assess the effect that stall stocking density and the time that cows spend away from the home pen being milked has on the lying behavior of Holstein cattle, a total of 111 commercial freestall dairy farms were visited in Canada. Accelerometers were used to automatically record the lying behavior of 40 focal cows per farm. Total duration of lying, lying bout frequency, and the mean duration of lying bouts were calculated. Pen population was the total number of cows in the pen. To calculate stall stocking density (%) the number of cows in the pen and the number of useable stalls were counted and multiplied by 100, and the length × width of the pen was divided by the number of cows in the pen to calculate area/cow (m²). Time away from the pen per day was recorded from when the first cow in each pen was taken out of the home pen for milking until the last cow returned to the home pen after milking, and this time was multiplied by daily milking frequency. The median value for lying duration at the farm level was 10.6 h/d, with 10.5 lying bouts/d, and a median lying bout duration of 1.2 h. Stall stocking density ranged from 52.2 to 160.0%, with very few farms (7%) stocking at greater than 120%. Although stall stocking density was not significantly correlated with lying behavior, the results showed that no farm with stocking density greater that 100% achieved an average herd lying duration of 12 h/d or higher, whereas 21.6% of farms with a stocking density of 100% or less did achieve the target lying time of ≥12 h/d, as recommended by the Canadian Code of Practice (χ² = 4.86, degrees of freedom = 1). Area/cow (m²) was not correlated with any aspect of lying behavior, but regardless of space per cow, pen population was correlated with daily frequency and duration of lying bouts. As the number of cows in the pen increased, lying daily bout frequency increased (correlation coefficient = 0.24) and lying bout duration decreased (correlation coefficient = −0.30). Lying behavior was affected by the time the cows were away from the pen being milked. When cows were away from the pen for longer than 3.7 h/d, no farm achieved the recommended herd median lying time of 12 h/d or longer. These results suggest that providing 1 stall for each cow in the pen and minimizing time away from the pen are important factors if cattle are to achieve the recommended daily lying duration of 12 h/d.     

Effect of following recommendations for tiestall configuration on neck and leg lesions,lameness, cleanliness,and lying time in dairy cows

Cow comfort in tiestalls is directly affected by stall dimensions, for which some recommendations exist. To evaluate how well Canadian dairy farms with tiestalls complied with recommendations for stall dimensions, as well as the effect of compliance on cow comfort and cleanliness, we assessed lactating Holstein cows (n = 3,485) on 100 tiestall dairy farms for neck and leg lesions, lameness, and cleanliness and measured time spent lying down. Data on stall dimensions (width and length of the stall, position and height of the tie rail, length of the chain, and height of the manger curb) were recorded for each cow. The majority of cows were housed in stalls smaller than recommended. The prevalence of lesions and lameness was high (neck, 33%; knee, 44%; hock; 58%, lameness, 25%) and the prevalence of dirtiness was low (udder, 4%; flank, 11%; legs, 4%). Chains shorter than recommended increased the risk of neck, knee, and hock lesions. A tie rail further back in the stall than recommended increased the risk of neck, knee, and hock lesions and reduced the frequency of lying bouts and the risk of a dirty udder. A tie rail set lower than recommended decreased the risk of neck lesions and lameness and increased lying time and lying bout frequency. Stalls narrower in width than recommended increased the risk of neck injuries and lameness and reduced the daily duration of lying time and the risk of a dirty flank and legs. Stalls shorter in length than recommended increased the risk of knee lesions and reduced lying bout frequency and the risk of a dirty udder. The majority of farms do not follow recommendations for stall dimensions (with the exception of tie rail height), and the lack of compliance is associated with increased risk of lesions and lameness and can affect lying time. Recommended stall dimensions tend to reduce cleanliness, but the prevalence of dirty cows remains very low.