Geotechnical aspects of rock tunnelling in China

To meet the huge demands of transportation, energy and other infrastructure projects, a large volume of rock tunnelling is being carried out across the country as China embarks on her modernization plan. This paper summaries the geotechnical issues encountered on such projects, including the various modes of rock mass instability and geological hazards. Methods of evaluating rock mass quality and ground conditions as developed in the West are now widely used on tunnelling projects in China. As well Chinese engineers and researchers have also developed geomechanical systems for rock mass classification, failure modes and support requirements. These systems have been proven to be effective in dealing with the complex geologic and tunnelling conditions in China. Also described in the paper are analytical techniques currently used in China for tunnel performance prediction, including canonical analysis, expert systems, block vector analysis and advanced numerical modelling techniques.     

The influence of engineering geology and rock mechanics in tunnelling

Conclusions May I conclude very shortly by making some general remarks. One very good advice of Stini: to approach a problem from outside, proceed from totality to details. Another good suggestion was given to me by my teacher Terzaghi who said: observe everything and try to explain what you observed! To this I would like to add: be afraid to trust too simple, plausible explanations. May I add another suggestion: try always to combine theory and practice and to confront ideas and experience. Furthermore: do not use follow-ups or check lists or classifications as a mental by-pass of the responsible duty of assessment, of judgments, of creative decisions! Learn from life, that contrasts are not contradictions. Living on a star, on a beautiful home star, we should feel responsible for it, more than till now; we should feel obliged to keep it alive. Engineering geologists can do a lot in this direction. Text of the conference prepared by L. L. Müller for the 4th International Congress of the I.A.E.G., New Delhi, 1982. Texte de la conférence préparée par L. Müller pour le 4^e Congrès International de l'A.I.G.I., New Delhi, 1982.     

Linearization of the Hoek and Brown rock failure criterion for tunnelling in elasto-plastic rock masses

We present a novel methodology for estimation of equivalent Mohr–Coulomb strength parameters that can be used for design of supported tunnels in elasto-plastic rock masses satisfying the non-linear empirical Hoek–Brown failure criterion. We work with a general adimensional formulation of the Hoek–Brown failure criterion in the space of normalized Lambe's variables for plane stress, and we perform linearization considering the stress field in the plastic region around the tunnel. The procedure is validated using analytical solutions to a series of benchmark test cases. Numerical solutions are also employed to validate the procedure in cases for which analytical solutions are not available. Results indicate that the stress field in the plastic region around the tunnel, as well as the linearization method employed and the quality of the rock mass, has a significant impact on computed estimates of equivalent Mohr–Coulomb strength parameters. Results of numerical analyses also show that our proposed linearization method can be employed to estimate loads and moments on the tunnel support system. We recommend the equating model responses (EMR) method to compute equivalent Mohr–Coulomb strength parameters when the tunnel support pressure is accurately known, and we further show that our newly introduced linearization method can be employed as an alternative to the best fitting in the existing stress range (BFe) and best fitting in an artificial stress range (BFa) methods, providing performance estimates that are generally better than estimates of the BFe and BFa methods when differences with the response of the Hoek–Brown rock mass are of engineering significance (say more than 10%).     

An analytical model to predict axial load in grouted rock bolt for soft rock tunnelling

An analytical model is proposed to predict the axial force of grouted rock bolt in the tunnelling design. The interaction mechanism of the rock bolt and the soft rock mass has been described according to their consistent displacement. Coupling and decoupling behaviors of the rock bolt around a circular tunnel have been analyzed. According to case studies, the theoretical prediction of the axial force agrees well with the in situ measured results. The installing time and the length of the rock bolt, and the deformation modulus of the rock mass are taken as study parameters to analyze the supporting behavior of the rock bolt. According to the results of the theoretical analysis, there are some conclusions as followings: (1) a lower axial force is resulted because of the delay of installing rock bolt and its supporting effect may be reduced; (2) the larger displacement is caused by the lower deformation modulus of the rock mass, and a higher axial force is resulted in the rock bolt. If the shear strength of the rock mass is not enough, the decoupling behavior will take place interior the rock mass, and the performance of rock bolt may be reduced; (3) the position of a neutral point is related with the radius of tunnel, the physical properties of the rock bolt and the rock mass. It is found that the position of the neutral point and the maximum axial force of the rock bolt installed in the soft rock may tend to be constant when its length is long enough, which means that the supporting effect of the rock bolt can not be improved significantly only by increasing the length of the rock bolt. By using this model, a way is supplied to analyze the supporting behavior of the rock bolt, and a method is provided for the quantitative evaluation of its supporting effect in NATM tunnelling.     

土压平衡盾构掘进对上软下硬地层扰动研究

 采用Ф800 mm模型盾构开展室内掘进试验以研究土压盾构掘进对上软下硬地层的扰动特征,试验充分考虑土压盾构动态施工全过程的影响。建立与室内掘进试验对应的离散元模型定量分析软土超挖现象并挖掘其他地层扰动信息。研究结果表明：土压盾构在硬岩地层中掘进时地表沉降曲面呈现向软土侧展开的“扇面”状;进入上软下硬地层后地表沉降值与范围均急剧增加,沉降曲面呈现自上而下逐渐收缩的“漏斗”状,硬岩侧收缩速度快于软土侧;上软下硬地层地表位移小于均质软土地层,而地中沉降显著大于后者;上软下硬地层地中沉降槽宽度参数沿深度方向呈指数增加,硬岩占断面比例越小,地中沉降槽宽度参数越大。相同埋深条件下,上软下硬地层地中沉降槽宽度参数小于均质软土地层。硬岩占断面比例越大,渣土中砂土所占比例与相应理论值差异越明显。地表水平位移在竖向沉降槽曲线反弯点处最大。研究可为土压盾构在上软下硬地层施工提供参考。     

Soil disturbance of Shanghai silty clay during EPB tunnelling

The disturbance of Shanghai silty clay during earth pressure balance (EPB) tunnelling has been studied through field monitoring, field measurement and laboratory test. The soil disturbance during tunnelling consists of two parts: stress disturbance, which is the change of effective stress; and strain disturbance, which is caused by the soil movement. The definition of stress disturbance degree of Shanghai silty clay is given by the change in the in situ effective stress before and just after tunnelling at the same site. According to the changes in the static cone penetrometer resistance, the extent of stress disturbance in a transverse section is determined. The relationships between the mechanical properties and stress disturbance degree are also studied.     

Pressurised TBM tunnelling in mixed face conditions resulting from tropical weathering of igneous rock

Weathering is a process that turns rock into soil. Deep weathering is prevalent in tropical and sub-tropical areas. The resulting sub-surface conditions can be very onerous for tunnelling, with tunnel drives commonly encountering a significant proportion of mixed face conditions, comprising partly rock and partly soil. Problems that have been encountered have included: inability to maintain the face pressure, ground loss, sinkholes, slow rates of tunnelling, rapid tool wear, damage to tools, mixing arms and other parts of the TBM, very frequent and long interventions, clogging and blow-outs. The nature and extent of the problems on any particular tunnel have depended on the type and design of the TBM, the nature of the rock and the proportion of the tunnel in mixed ground. In Singapore this has resulted in a change from mainly EPB to mainly slurry tunnelling in weathered igneous rock; however, predominantly EPB TBMs have been used in weathered sedimentary rock. Information from EPB and slurry TBM drives is used to illustrate the issues involved.     

Comparison among different criteria of RMR and Q-system for rock mass classification for tunnelling in Korea

Recent increase in the number of tunneling projects in Korea resulted in a large amount of good quality data such as RMR and Q-value for the assessment of rock mass class. In addition, a new bidding system, so-called Turn-Key system, has also made the data quality better than ever before, due to the increase of the budget for site investigation. A conventional guideline for rock mass classification by KHC (Korea Highway Corporation) has been widely used in Korea but other forms of classification using different criteria of RMR or Q-value have been recently used. Since there have been few studies on the relationship among such different criteria on RMR or Q-value, this study mainly focuses on the comparison of the conventional guideline for rock mass classification with several individual classification schemes in Korea. Analysis of the coincidence among the different criteria using both RMR and Q-value showed that there is higher coincidence if rock mass is in relatively good condition. It was also found that there is less consistency between RMR criteria and Q-value criteria in conventional KHC Guideline for rock mass classification than the recently adopted individual criteria.     

Earth pressure balance tunnelling in rock masses: Laboratory feasibility study of the conditioning process

Earth pressure balance (EPB) shield tunnelling is considered to be an effective tunnelling method when surface settlements must be avoided by controlling face stability and underground water inflow. EPB technology is applied increasingly to the conditioning of rock masses in which the presence of polluting material is foreseen and must be controlled, or when explosive gases from the rock mass must be prevented from entering in the machine. The use of an EPB machine in ‘closed mode’ can prevent the dispersion of dangerous materials in the underground environment. This study was performed to evaluate the feasibility of using EPB technology in rock masses and the effectiveness of this tunnelling process in terms of soil conditioning, conditioned soil permeability, pressure transmission on the tunnel face, and the ability to extract the material with a screw conveyor. The research was developed with a set of laboratory tests carried out on three different types of rock masses where tunnelling with EPB machines are planned to be constructed in Italy but the results can be easily applied to similar rock mass types. The tests have been carried out both with slump tests and with a specially constructed screw conveyor extraction device. In the paper the most important results are presented and discussed.     

盾构施工扰动与地层移动及其智能神经网络预测

讨论了城市地铁区间隧道盾构掘进中对土体的施工扰动及引起地层移动和地表变形沉降的力学机理 ,概括了施工扰动影响的主导因素。结合上海市地铁 2号线的工程实践 ,采用了人工智能神经网络技术对地表沉降进行了预测 ,经与现场实测值作对比分析 ,论证了上述软科学方法的可行性和适用性     

Damage assessment of basaltic rock mass due to repeated blasting in a railway tunnelling project – A case study

The demand for tunnelling and underground space creation is rapidly growing due to the requirement of civil infrastructure projects and urbanisation. Blasting remains the most inexpensive method of underground excavations in hard rock. Unfortunately, there are no specific safety guidelines available for the blasted tunnels with regards to the threshold limits of vibrations caused by repeated blasting activity in the close proximity. This paper presents the results of a comprehensive study conducted to find out the effect of repeated blast loading on the damage experienced by jointed basaltic rock mass during tunnelling works. Conducting of multiple rounds of blasts for various civil excavations in a railway tunnel imparted repeated loading on rock mass of sidewall and roof of the tunnel. The blast induced damage was assessed by using vibration attenuation equations of charge weight scaling law and measured by borehole extensometers and borehole camera. Ground vibrations of each blasting round were also monitored by triaxial geophones installed near the borehole extensometers. The peak particle velocity (V_max) observations and plastic deformations from borehole extensometers were used to develop a site specific damage model. The study reveals that repeated dynamic loading imparted on the exposed tunnel from subsequent blasts, in the vicinity, resulted in rock mass damage at lesser vibration levels than the critical peak particle velocity (V_cr). It was found that, the repeated blast loading resulted in the near-field damage due to high frequency waves and far-field damage due to low frequency waves. The far field damage, after 45–50 occurrences of blast loading, was up to 55% of the near-field damage in basaltic rock mass. The findings of the study clearly indicate that the phenomena of repeated blasting with respect to number of cycles of loading should be taken into consideration for proper assessment of blast induced damage in underground excavations.     

Wireless networking in tunnelling projects

Emerging collaborative technologies and working methods often require tremendous engineering and organisational efforts for successful implementation of information and communication technologies (ICTs). According to a research conducted in Turkish construction industry, most of the problems that occur during the construction phase are due to lack of co-operation and communication between designers and contractors and lack of prompt expert decisions during on-site engineering. Similar to any major construction project, tunnelling project’s success is highly dependent on collaborative team work where communication and information exchange take place between project members. Distributed collaborative teamwork, as the case in most of the large scale construction projects as well as tunnelling projects, empowered by state of the art information and communication technology, promises more efficient work processes, reduced travelling needs, and increased opportunities for project communication. Following the fast development of mobile computing in recent years, many sectors have adopted mobile devices and wireless technologies enabling real-time information transfer thereby improving business processes. For some years, the feasibility of implementing wireless solutions to construction sites has been researched. Potentially, mobile and wireless technologies enable construction staff to be more flexible in terms of location and time. For better use of mobile collaboration in construction projects, mobile technologies and construction sector have to be examined in some detail to implant the most suitable technology for real-time information access and improved collaboration of distributed teams in construction. However, case studies in construction are very limited in number and scope. This paper discusses and proposes an implementation scenario of wireless networking in Marmaray; a multi-site tunnelling project in Istanbul. Benefits, possible problems and cost assessments are discussed.     

Volume loss in shallow tunnelling

Although volume loss has an important effect in estimating the ground movements due to tunnelling in the design stage, this parameter is often determined by experience. This makes it difficult to estimate the impact on volume loss when changing project parameters like soil conditions, depth of the tunnel or sensitivity of the surroundings. This paper investigates the relationship between volume loss and cover-to-diameter $C/D$ ratio in shallow tunnelling. Based on a number of (empirical) relations from literature, such as the stability number method and an analysis of the bentonite and grout flows, volume loss at the face, along the shield and at the tail is determined. Long-term volume loss behind the shield is also estimated by means of consolidation. In this way a band width of achievable volume loss for future projects is derived.     

Risk assessment and risk sharing in tunnelling

This paper discusses three categories of risks—functional, structural and contractual—and how they relate specifically to the design and engineering of underground openings. Because the causes of functional and structural failures are complex and often interrelated, there is an urgent need for imprived methods of risk assessment. The author proposes a number of recommendations concerning risk assessment, and includes the International Tunnelling Association's recommendations regarding contractual sharing of risks.     

Future tunnelling projects in Iceland

More than 300 km of hydro tunnels and 80–90 km of road tunnels could be excavated in Iceland before the year 2050. In order to complete this task, an average of 6–7 km of tunnel per year would have to driven. This volume of tunnelling is estimated to cost more than $US1 billion, which could be divided as follows: a) about 100 km of 3.5-m-wide diversion hydro tunnels (unsupported), for a total of $90 million; b) approx. 100 km of 5-m-wide hydro tunnels (supported), for a total of $210 million; c) about 100 km of 7.6-m-wide hydro tunnels (supported), for a total of $380 million; and d) approx. 85 km of road tunnels with 25 m² cross-section, for a total of $435 million.