A solar desalination system using humidification–dehumidification process: experimental study and comparison with the theoretical results

In this study, influence of the different system operating conditions on the performance of a solar desalination system using humidification-dehumidification process have been investigated experimentally under the climatological conditions of Ankara (40°N, 33°E), Turkey. An experimental set-up that consists of a double-pass flat plate solar air heater with two glass covers, pad humidifier, dehumidifying exchanger and water storage tank was designed and manufactured. Working principle of the set-up is based on the idea of closed water and open-air cycles. A series of tests were performed on it in outdoor environment, in order to assess the effect of mass flow rate of the feed water, process air and cooling water, double-pass flat plate solar air heater, initial water temperature and amount of the water inside the storage tank on the productivity of the system. Additionally, an evacuated tubular solar water heater unit was integrated to the existing system and the effect of this integration on the performance of the system was examined. Solar radiation, wind speed, relative humidity, mass flow rate of the feed water, process air and cooling water, mass of condensate water and temperatures at various locations were obtained during the experiments.

The results of the experimental study showed that under certain operating conditions, the system productivity decreases about 15% if double-pass solar air heater is not used and significant improvement on the productivity of the system is achieved by increasing the initial water temperature inside the storage tank. In addition, productivity of the system increases with increasing the feed water mass flow rate and quantity of water inside the storage tank. However, productivity of the system remains approximately the same when the air mass flow rate is increased. Moreover, increasing the cooling water mass flow rate results in the improvement on the productivity of the system investigated. Finally, results obtained from the present investigation were compared with the theoretical study and a good agreement between them is observed.     

Effect of External Recycle on Mass Transfer in Countercurrent Double-Pass Cross-Flow Rectangular Dialyzers

A study on mass transfer in countercurrent cross-flow rectangular dialyzers with external recycle was investigated. Theoretical analysis of mass transfer in cross-flow dialyzers is analogous to heat transfer in cross-flow heat exchangers. In contrast to a single-pass cross-flow device without recycle, improvement in mass transfer of about 30% is achievable if a double-pass device of the same size with external recycle is employed, which provides the increase of fluid velocity, resulting in increase of mass-transfer coefficient. Higher effectiveness may be expected when dialysis is operated for the system in which the mass-transfer resistances in the liquid films are comparable with that in the membrane.     

复合热源太阳能热泵热水系统性能模拟

提出了一种复合热源太阳能热泵热水系统,通过阀门切换,可以根据不同的天气状况改变运行模式,以空气和太阳辐射作为热源制取生活用水。针对设计的150 L热水系统建立了数学模型,对不同运行模式下的性能进行了计算机模拟分析,分析了太阳辐射强度及环境温度对系统性能的影响,并计算了系统的全年运行状况。从模拟结果可以看出,热泵串联集热器模式（HP+SC）比集热器串联热泵模式（SC+HP）耗时稍长,但COP更高,各月总热效率前者略高于后者。COP及总热效率均随太阳辐射强度及环境温度的升高而升高。在4～10月的晴朗天气下,应尽量优先采用集热器模式（SC）,仅在完全没有太阳辐射时才使用热泵模式（HP）。     

THE INFLUENCE OF RECYCLE ON MULTI-PASS LAMINAR COUNTERFLOW HEATERS OR COOLERS

A multi-pass laminar counterflow cooler or heater is an open duct divided into four subchannels with uniform wall temperature by inserting three impermeable sheets. Only the temperature of the flow stream varies along the subchannels. Improvements in heat transfer efficiency were investigated analytically with the use of eigenfunction expansions in the power series. The enhancement results in heat-transfer efficiency for two multi-pass devices (flow pattern A and flow pattern B) are represented graphically and compared with those in a single-pass device (without three impermeable sheets inserted) and those in a double-pass device (only one impermeable sheet inserted). Analytical results show that suitable impermeable-sheet position adjustments can effectively enhance heat transfer efficiencies for two multi-pass devices (flow pattern A and flow pattern B) compared with the efficiencies of single and double-pass devices.     

THE INFLUENCE OF RECYCLE ON MULTI-PASS LAMINAR COUNTERFLOW HEATERS OR COOLERS

A multi-pass laminar counterflow cooler or heater is an open duct divided into four subchannels with uniform wall temperature by inserting three impermeable sheets. Only the temperature of the flow stream varies along the subchannels. Improvements in heat transfer efficiency were investigated analytically with the use of eigenfunction expansions in the power series. The enhancement results in heat-transfer efficiency for two multi-pass devices (flow pattern A and flow pattern B) are represented graphically and compared with those in a single-pass device (without three impermeable sheets inserted) and those in a double-pass device (only one impermeable sheet inserted). Analytical results show that suitable impermeable-sheet position adjustments can effectively enhance heat transfer efficiencies for two multi-pass devices (flow pattern A and flow pattern B) compared with the efficiencies of single and double-pass devices.     

Solar desalination with a humidification-dehumidification cycle: performance of the unit

The closed air cycle humidification-dehumidification process was used for water desalination using solar energy. The circulated air by natural or forced convection was heated and humidified by the hot water obtained either from a flat plate solar collector or from an electrical heater. The latent heat of condensation was recovered in the condenser to preheat the saline feed water. Two units of different sizes were constructed from different materials. The productivity of these units was found to be much higher than those of the single-basin stills. Moreover, these units were capable of producing a large quantity of saline warm water for domestic uses other than drinking. No significant improvement in the performance of the desalination units was achieved using forced air circulation at high temperatures. While at lower temperatures, a larger effect was noticed. This can be related to the low heat and mass transfer coefficients at low temperatures and to the non-linear increase in the water vapor pressure with temperature.     

扰流板太阳能空气集热器的流道优化

通过改变常规的蛇形流道的扰流板式太阳能空气集热器的扰流板布置，开发出一种涡旋形流道太阳能空气集热器，并对其进行实验与模拟研究。研究发现在平均太阳辐照度819.7W/m²、温度7.33℃、流量0.025kg/s的条件下，涡旋形太阳能空气集热器的集热效率可达59.14%，比蛇形太阳能空气集热器高2.18%；而其压力损失仅为蛇形太阳能空气集热器的37.26%，且随着流量的增加，压损降低更加明显；同时得到在出口温度为30～90℃范围内，涡旋形太阳能空气集热器的热损系数在4.6～5.6W/(m²·K)之间，热迁移因子在0.64～0.72之间，二者的平均值各自较蛇形太阳能空气集热器高0.06W/(m²·K)与0.019。与蛇形太阳能空气集热器相比，涡旋形的太阳能空气集热器增加了太阳能空气集热器的集热效率，同时大幅降低压力损失。     

ANALYSIS OF DIALYSIS IN CROSS-FLOW PARALLEL-PLATE MEMBRANE MODULES WITH FEED-STREAM RECYCLE FOR IMPROVED PERFORMANCE

The effect of external recycle on the performance of dialysis in cross-flow rectangular membrane modules with feed-stream recycle was investigated theoretically. The analysis of mass transfer in parallel-plate devices with and without recycle is analogous to heat transfer in parallel-plate heat exchangers. In contrast to a device without recycle, improvement in mass transfer is achievable if cross-flow parallel-plate dialysis is operated in a device of the same size with recycle, which provides increased fluid velocity, resulting in reduction of the mass-transfer resistance.     

基于肋片式集热板的直膨式太阳能热泵

将一种新型肋片式集热器/蒸发器应用于直膨式太阳能热泵热水器,对其进行实验研究,并提出一系列优化方案。由于集热器表面温度通常低于环境温度,集热器除了从太阳辐射中吸收热能,还能从空气中吸收部分热能,集热效率较高。相同外形尺寸条件下,新型集热器较吹胀板集热器有更大的换热面积。实验结果表明,在天气晴朗的秋季,将150L水从20℃左右加热至50℃,热泵的平均供热性能系数（COP）能达到5.37,即使在环境温度为18.6℃的小雨天气,系统平均COP依旧能够达到3.43。对实验样机建立仿真模型,并针对新型集热器提出一系列优化方案,计算机模拟结果表明,经过优化,在晴朗天气将150L水从20℃加热至50℃,系统的平均COP可达到6。     

Dynamic Modeling and a Parametric Study of an Indirect Solar Cabinet Dryer

A dynamic mathematical model for drying of agricultural products in an indirect cabinet solar dryer is presented. This model describes the heat and mass transfer in the drying chamber and also considers the heat transfer and temperature distribution in a solar collector under transient conditions. For this purpose, using conservation laws of heat and mass transfer and considering the physical phenomena occurring in a solar dryer, the governing equations are derived and solved numerically. The model solution provides an effective tool to study the variation of temperature and humidity of the drying air, drying material temperature, and its moisture content on each tray. The predicted results are compared with available experimental data. It is shown that the model can predict the performance of the cabinet solar dryer in unsteady-state operating conditions well. Furthermore, the effect of some operating parameters on the performance and efficiency of dryer is investigated and compared with selected published data.     

Recycle Effect on Double‐Pass Concentric Circular Mass Exchangers under Uniform Wall Fluxes

A study on improvement in device performance of a double‐pass concentric circular mass exchanger with uniform wall fluxes and external refluxes was conducted under counterflow operations. The linear superposition of an asymptotic solution and a homogeneous solution with the use of an orthogonal expansion technique for solving such a conjugated Graetz problem is formulated theoretically and the analytical predictions are applied to investigate a substantial masstransfer improvement. A mathematical expression for the average Sherwood numbers and the outlet dimensionless concentration is given. Comparisons of analytical results are made with the single‐pass operations of the same working dimensions (without permeable barriers inserted and without recycle). Considerable device improvement in mass transfer rate is obtained by introducing the recycle‐effect concept in designing such double‐pass devices. The effect of permeable barriers on the mass‐transfer efficiency improvement as well as on the power consumption increment has also been delineated.     

太阳能有机朗肯循环系统的实验特性

为研究中低温太阳能驱动的有机朗肯循环系统的性能,设计并建造了太阳能驱动的有机朗肯循环实验台.实验中以R245fa为有机朗肯循环工质,以WD350导热油为槽式集热器循环工质,对太阳能有机朗肯循环系统进行了实验研究.实验结果表明,当太阳直射辐射强度在400 W·m^-2左右时,集热器出口导热油温度可达 140℃.当集热器出口导热油温度在 110℃附近时,集热器集热效率可达60%左右.在该热源条件下,动力循环部分从基本循环模式切换到回热循环模式时,测算效率从9.3%提升到10.8%,实测循环效率从1.57%提升到1.67%,提升了6.07%.实测循环系统 效率在10%左右,回热模式下略高于基本循环模式.实验中还考察了不同工质流量下的有机朗肯循环性能,在工质流量为 6.88 kg·min^-1时,得到的最大实测平均功率为386.27 W.一定热源温度下,随着工质流量的增加,膨胀机进口压力增加,循环输出功也增加;在一定的工质流量下,随着热源温度的升高,膨胀机进口的温度提高,进口压力也升高,循环输出功也增加.     

Experimental study of a multiple-effect humidification solar desalination technique

The object of this research is to experimentally investigate the principal operating parameters of a new desalination process working with an air multiple-effect humidification-dehumidification method. A test set-up was designed and constructed to carry out and optimize this technique. The main parts of the present set-up consist of a heat equipment device (heat exchanger), a spray humidifier and a dehumidifier system. This equipment was used to simulate the seawater desalination process experimentally with an eight-stage air solar collector heating-humidifying system. The outlet temperature of the air solar collector was correlated for use in the desalination process as a solar heating device. The operating conditions studied were: ratio of water to dry air mass flow rate through the system, humidifier inlet absolute humidity, dry air mass flow rate through the system and solar irradiation or humidifier inlet air temperature. The experimental results obtained were used to put stress and correlate the influence of the different operating conditions on the behavior of the eight-stage air heating-humidifying desalination process. The ratio of water to dry air mass flow rates was optimized, precisely 45%. The value of dry air mass flow rate through the system can be also varied with solar radiation in order to have a maximum of humidity content at the end of the system and though working in an adiabatic humidification process.     

Saffron Drying with a Heat Pump–Assisted Hybrid Photovoltaic–Thermal Solar Dryer

Saffron is the most expensive spice and Iran is the largest producer of this crop in the world. Saffron quality is profoundly affected by the drying method. Recent research has shown that hybrid photovoltaic–thermal solar power systems are more efficient in comparison with individual photovoltaic and thermal systems. In addition, heat pump dryers are highly energy efficient. Furthermore, they are suitable for heat-sensitive crops such as saffron. Therefore, in the present study, the performance of a hybrid photovoltaic–thermal solar dryer equipped with a heat pump system was considered for saffron drying, in order to obtain a high-quality product and reduce fossil fuel consumption. The effect of air mass flow rate at three levels (0.008, 0.012, and 0.016 kg/s), drying air temperature at three levels (40, 50, and 60°C), and two different dryer modes (with and without the heat pump unit) on the operating parameters of the dryer was investigated. The results of the investigation showed that total drying time and energy consumption decreased as air flow rate and drying air temperature increased. Applying a heat pump with the dryer led to a reduction in the drying time and energy consumption and an increase in electrical efficiency of the solar collector. The average total energy consumption was reduced by 33% when the dryer was equipped with a heat pump. Maximum values for electrical and thermal efficiency of the solar collector were found to be 10.8 and 28%, respectively. A maximum dryer efficiency of 72% and maximum specific moisture extraction rate (SMER) of 1.16 were obtained at an air flow rate of 0.016 kg/s and air temperature of 60°C when using the heat pump.     

THE EFFECT OF A NON-UNIFORM SURFACE TEMPERATURE ON LAMINAR NATURAL CONVECTION IN A RECTANGULAR ENCLOSURE

Three dimensional solutions were developed for natural convection in a 2 × 1 × 1 rectangular enclosure by finite-difference calculations. Sawtooth temperature distributions with different amplitudes and orientations were imposed on the lower (2×1) surface to simulate the effect of cooling coils or jackets on the collector plate of a flat-plate solar heater. The shorter dimension of the enclosure was progressively inclined.

The circulation patterns were not changed significantly by the surface temperature distributions. The variation of the Nusselt number with inclination was not changed significantly but the magnitude increased with the amplitude of the surface temperature variations for inclinations of less than 90 degrees.

It is concluded that the collecting plate of a solar collector should be maintained as nearly isothermal as possible to minimize heat losses by natural convection through the air gap.     

THE EFFECT OF A NON-UNIFORM SURFACE TEMPERATURE ON LAMINAR NATURAL CONVECTION IN A RECTANGULAR ENCLOSURE

Three dimensional solutions were developed for natural convection in a 2 × 1 × 1 rectangular enclosure by finite-difference calculations. Sawtooth temperature distributions with different amplitudes and orientations were imposed on the lower (2×1) surface to simulate the effect of cooling coils or jackets on the collector plate of a flat-plate solar heater. The shorter dimension of the enclosure was progressively inclined.

The circulation patterns were not changed significantly by the surface temperature distributions. The variation of the Nusselt number with inclination was not changed significantly but the magnitude increased with the amplitude of the surface temperature variations for inclinations of less than 90 degrees.

It is concluded that the collecting plate of a solar collector should be maintained as nearly isothermal as possible to minimize heat losses by natural convection through the air gap.     

移动式相变储热木材太阳能干燥装置的理论设计

针对木材太阳能干燥间歇性的不足以及传统太阳能储热采用混凝土、天然沸石等通过显热的方式储热体积大、热效率低的缺点,该文进行了移动式相变储热木材太阳能干燥装置的理论设计,并在此基础上完成了实际研制过程。该装置主要包括热管真空太阳能空气集热系统,石蜡相变储热系统,干燥系统,自动控制系统四个部分。该设计不仅能为相变储热式太阳能干燥装置的研制提供理论依据,更重要的是后续实验得出的规律可为进一步开展太阳能干燥技术的研究和工业化应用提供实验指导。     

Integration of Photovoltaic Cells in Solar Drying Systems

Photovoltaic (PV) cells have not been sufficiently used in drying processes in the past, particularly for solar drying, due to their high price and low efficiency. This is now changing due to the important scientific and technological recent developments in the PV field. An increase in the number of published scientific works related to the integration of PV cells is clearly visible. It is revealed that PV cells are integrated in drying systems for two essential reasons. The first relates to their use as a part of the solar collector (generally solar air collector), which permits an improvement of their low efficiency. As a result, and in most of the studied cases, the total solar collector efficiency has reached 70%. The second reason relates to the recycling of the electrical energy consumed by other drying system components such as fans. The recycled electrical energy was directly used for instant energy consumption or stored in batteries. The main application of PV cells is their use in direct- and indirect-type forced convection dryers, generally for food and herb drying. In a study case, an economic analysis has shown that payback is dependent on the ratio of the PV cell surface to the total solar collector surface, with the possibility of an optimum payback in less than one year. In another study case, an additional heat pump significantly improved the performance of the photovoltaic–thermal (PV/T) solar dryer, reaching an efficiency of 70%. A proper design of solar drying plays an important role in attaining optimum results. In this case, particular care is given to the design of solar dryers with a detailed presentation of the influence of the different parameters such as the surface of the PV cell, geographical location, and materials used. For most of the presented systems, efficiency is calculated after application of the heat and mass balance for each solar dryer compound.     

泵驱动回路热管能量回收装置性能的影响因素

提出一种泵驱动回路热管能量回收装置,用于回收公共建筑空调系统排风的能量,降低处理新风的能耗,并搭建实验平台,测试该装置在两种工况下的性能,分析工质质量流量、换热器换热面积和换热器迎面风速3种因素对装置换热量、温度效率和性能系数的影响,得出质量流量、换热面积和迎面风速的最优值。结果表明,夏季工况下,质量流量250 kg·h^-1,换热面积58.0 m²,迎面风速1.8 m·s^-1时,装置的换热量为4.09 kW,性能系数为9.26;冬季工况下,质量流量300 kg·h^-1,换热面积58.0 m²,迎面风速1.8 m·s^-1时,装置的换热量为6.63 kW,性能系数为14.20。     

基于NTU的太阳能溶液集热/再生器性能分析

太阳能溶液集热/再生器是集太阳能光热转化和溶液再生于一体的装置,它能有效实现太阳能溶液除湿蒸发冷却系统的溶液再生。通过自定义总温差（ΔT₀）和量纲1散热系数两个变量,得到以传热单元数为自变量的量纲1耦合传热、传质模型,并通过与相关实验对比对模型进行了验证。通过对空气和溶液入口参数变化对溶液集热再生性能影响分析,发现空气入口温度提高12℃、湿度降低12 g•kg^-1,溶液出口浓度升幅分别提高30%和70%以上;溶液入口温度提高30℃,溶液出口浓度升幅提高160%以上。对4组量纲群分析,得到传热单元数NTU、流量比ASMR、总温差ΔT0和Lewis数Le的增加都能促进溶液再生。逆流再生比顺流再生的出口浓度增幅能提高10%左右。