High Temperature Tribological Studies on Surface Engineered Tool Steel and High Strength Boron Steel

The popularity of hot sheet metal forming processes in the recent years has necessitated research efforts to improve tool life and control the friction level during hot forming operations. In this work, the tribological properties of tool steel and ultra high strength boron steel (UHSS) pairs at elevated temperatures have been studied by using a special hot sheet metal forming test rig that closely simulates the conditions prevalent in the real process. This test involves linear unidirectional sliding of a preheated UHSS sheet between two tool steel specimens where new workpiece material is continuously in contact with the tool surface. The study is aimed at investigating different surface treatments/coatings applied on either the tool or sheet surface or on both. The results have shown that it is possible to control the coefficients of friction through surface treatments and coatings of the tool and workpiece materials. The application of a coating onto the sheet material has a greater influence on the friction compared to changing the tool steel surface. After running‐in, the investigated tool steel variants show almost similar frictional behaviour when sliding against the same sheet material. Although coating the UHSS sheet reduces friction, it abrades the tool surface and also results in transfer of the sheet coating material to the tool surface.     

薄板冲压成形中摩擦测定装置伺服控制系统

主要介绍了液压伺服系统在汽车板冲压成形中表面摩擦测定装置上的应用 ,分析了系统各部工作原理及动态过程函数的组成。本系统对生产实际冲模中实现冲压过程自动控制具有一定的研究意义     

Material Flow Control and Optimization in High‐Pressure Sheet Metal Forming by Active‐Elastic Tools

High‐pressure forming of metal sheets is an innovative forming technology for the production of complex components and offers high potentials to improve the properties and qualities of sheet metal parts. This report describes investigations of a newly developed active‐elastic tool system referred to as ACTEC system. Unlike the use of a comparable semi‐rigid tool system, the ACTEC system shows improvements with respect to the material flow in the flange area and reduced sheet thinning in critical corner regions of the workpiece. In addition, the clamping forces respectively sealing forces necessary to avoid leakage in the tool system during the forming process can be reduced. Moreover, the specific design of the ACTEC‐system as well as current experimental examinations are presented and discussed.     

Study of Forming Limit for Rotational Incremental Sheet Forming of Magnesium Alloy Sheet

As a lightweight material, magnesium is being increasingly used for automotive parts. However, due to a hexagonal-closed-packed (hcp) crystal structure, in which only the basal plane can move, magnesium alloy sheets exhibit a low ductility and formability at room temperature. Press forming of magnesium alloy sheets is conventionally performed at elevated temperatures of 200 °C to 250 °C and thus is known as energy consumed forming. Therefore, in view of an energy saving forming technology, we study magnesium alloy sheet forming by a rotational incremental sheet forming (RISF) at room temperature, where the rotational tool generates local heat of specimen enough to accelerate plastic deformation. The flow curves of the magnesium alloy sheet are obtained and calculated at elevated temperatures, while the yield loci of the magnesium alloy sheet are measured at room temperature. Using RISF, a square cup of 80-mm width, 80-mm length, and 25-mm height is then formed from a magnesium alloy sheet at room temperature. In addition, the strain distribution is obtained and compared with the forming limit curve (FLC) by considering the effect of the tool radius and is found to effectively predict the forming limit of a magnesium alloy sheet in RISF.     

A Simple and Low-Cost Lubrication Method for Improvement in the Surface Quality of Incremental Sheet Metal Forming

The incremental sheet forming technology as a flexible forming process is often used to fabricate parts with small batches or individuation. However, the lubrication of this technology is usually difficult and complex due to the rigidity in the contact between tool and sheet. In this work, a novel lubrication method with graphite grease/oil is adopted to fabricate parts with aluminum in incremental sheet forming, which is simple and low-cost compared to previous methods. Meanwhile, other two lubrication methods, such as oil lubrication and graphite lubrication, are adopted as control groups. The surface roughness profile and the surface morphology obtained by the new method are both better than that obtained by control groups. Moreover, machining and step-down traces of the forming surface of specimens fabricated, thickness distribution, and forming force could be availably improved with the novel lubrication method.     

Analysis of an improved width-flow concept for the production of ribbed strips by cold rolling

In today's increasingly competitive business environment, companies must look for innovative solutions to survive the competition. In the metal forming industry the engineers are turning to new technologies in order to achieve the goals. One new innovative process is the macroscopic structuration of strips by cold rolling for use in light-weight constructions. Components with a macro-structured surface demonstrate - on the condition of equal weight - a higher area moment of inertia and consequently a higher stiffness than non-structured workpieces. The subjects presented in this paper refer to ribbed sheets produced in a cold-rolling process. Particularly the material flow into the rib pocket is studied in a simplified model as a function of different set-up parameters like tool geometry, deformation, and friction. The theoretical investigations are carried out by the upper-bound theory. The results are compared with an FEM-analysis.     

The ring compression test as simulation test for the investigation of friction in hot metal forming

Forces and flow of material in metal working decisively depend on friction between workpiece and tool, which can be described by the friction factor m. For investigation of the influence of friction in hot forming of steel and for measurement of the friction factor, the ring compression test is used as simulation test. The influences of material, reduction, strain rate, temperature, and lubricant are discussed.     

影响冲压过程中钢板摩擦行为的因素

研究了不同试验条件下对两种毛化钢板冲压摩擦行为的影响,结果表明,润滑条件将影响冲压过程中的摩擦行为,润滑油种类对凹模圆角处摩擦因数影响不大,而对冲头圆角处摩擦因数的影响较大;一般随冲程的增加,钢板的凹模、冲头圆角处摩擦因数都降低,而且凹模处的摩擦因数低于冲头圆角处的摩擦因数;在同一润滑条件下,激光板的表面具有较低的摩擦因数。     

Influence of Surface Roughness of Galvanized Steel Sheet on Self-lubricated Coating

Three different thicknesses of self-lubricated coatings were prepared on galvanized steel sheets with different surface roughness(Ra).Performances of the coatings were evaluated by various laboratory tests.Scanning electron microscopy(SEM),atomic force microscope(AFM),neutral salt spraying test(NSST),reciprocating friction and wear test were taken in order to characterize the coatings.Results show that the self-lubricated coating has good corrosion resistance and lubricating property.In 0.857-1.629μm of Ravalue,the relationship between friction coefficients of the self-lubricated steel sheets and the surface roughness of the galvanized steel sheets likes a parabolic curve,and has a peak value of friction coefficient in certain range of Ra.Affected by the hereditary surface topography of the galvanized steel sheet,dents on the surface of self-lubricated steel become deeper and larger with the increase of the surface roughness of the galvanized steel sheets.The influence of the surface roughness of the galvanized steel sheet on the corrosion resistance of the self-lubricated coating steel is similar to that on friction coefficient of self-lubricated coatings,like a parabolic curve.     

Material Flow Control in High Pressure Sheet Metal Forming of Large Area Parts with Complex Geometry Details

Working media based forming processes show advantages compared to the conventional deep drawing in the range of sheet metal parts with complex geometry details. By High Pressure Sheet Metal Forming (HBU), complex parts can be formed with reduced tool costs, fewer process steps, and improved part properties, particularly by the use of high strength steels. In order to use these advantages to full capacity, the material flow into the area of the geometry details needs to be optimised. The key element for the material flow control is a multi‐point blank holder. In combination with flange draw‐in sensors, a closed loop flange draw‐in control can be built up which guarantees a reproducible material flow and, consequently, defined part properties. Furthermore, a favourable pre‐distribution of sheet metal material can be reached which leads to a widening of the process limits. Considering a large area sheet metal part with a complex door handle element as example, strategies for the material flow control will be discussed in this paper. The conclusions are based on FE‐simulations as well as experimental findings.     

Development of a Robot‐Based Sheet Metal Forming Process

This paper describes a new sheet metal forming process for the production of sheet components for prototypes and small lot sizes. The generation of the shape is based on kinematics and is implemented by means of a new forming machine consisting of two industrial robots. Compared to conventional sheet metal forming machines, this newly developed forming process offers a high geometrical form flexibility, and comparatively small deformation forces enable high deformation degrees. The principle of the procedure is based on flexible shaping by means of a freely programmable path‐synchronous movement of the two robots. The final shape is produced by the incremental infeed of the forming tool in depth direction and its movement along the contour in lateral direction at each level of the depth direction. The supporting tool with its simple geometry is used to support the sheet metal and follows the forming tool at the rear side of the sheet metal. The sheet metal components manufactured in first attempts are of simple geometry like frustum and frustum of pyramids as well as spherical cups. Among other things the forming results are improved by an adjustment of the movement strategy, a variation of individual process parameters and geometric modifications of the tools. In addition to a measurement of the form deviations of the sheet with a Coordinate Measurement Machine, screened and deformed sheets are used for deformation analyses. Furthermore, the incremental forming process is analysed with assistance of the finite element method. In total the results show that a robot‐based sheet metal forming with kinematic shape generation is possible and leads to acceptable forming results. In order to be able to use the potential of this process, a goal‐oriented process design is as necessary as specific process knowledge. In order to achieve process stability and safety, the essential process parameters and the process boundaries have to be determined.     

Measurement of friction under sheet forming conditions

Among the tests used to evaluate friction in sheet forming processes, bending-under-tension (BUT) tests have received considerable attention. A new test was developed incorporating a smooth increase of wrap angle during deformation, even at high deformation rates, thus replicating typical conditions at die radii. A corresponding data analysis procedure was introduced to separate the effects of bending and friction and to account for the strain-rate sensitivity of the test material. The new test and analytical procedure were used to investigate the frictional behavior for four sheet alloys: interstitialfree (IF) steel, high-strength galvanized (HSG) steel, 2008-T4 aluminum, and 70/30 brass. A range of testing rates, pin radii, and lubrication conditions were employed, and the variation of friction coefficient (μ) as a function of contact radius, contact angle, and punch speed was measured. Complex variations ofμ with respect to tool radius and wrap angle were observed, consistent with previous studies. No significant, systematic variation ofμ was found for punch speeds ranging from 1.7 to 170 mm/s, contrary to reports in the literature. Failures in 2008-T4 aluminum shifted from tensile localization to bending as the tool radius was reduced. The other materials consistently failed by tensile localization.     

Controlling the Surface Quality of a Steel Sheet by Monitoring the Lubricant Layer

This paper focuses on the influences on surface quality of a steel sheet by controlling the application of forming compounds. To date forming compounds have been applied empirically by rolling or spraying the lubricant onto the surface of the sheet metal. But there is no possibility to control the distribution of the lubricant on the metal surface. Especially in areas of high abrasion and degree of deformation, there is a need to increase the layer of lubricant, whereas material flow has to be prevented in other areas. So the distribution of forming compounds in the different application areas must be controlled by using a monitoring system. With this process control it is possible to stabilize the surface quality of the workpieces and the amount of lubricant can be optimized.     

固体润滑助剂对镀铝锌耐指纹钢板表面摩擦特性的影响

在常温及高温条件下,利用表面性能分析仪和拉延设备考察了三种固体润滑助剂（聚乙烯润滑助剂、聚四氟乙烯润滑助剂及聚乙烯/四氟润滑助剂）对热镀铝锌耐指纹钢板表面摩擦特性的影响,并采用三维视频显微镜分析了镀铝锌耐指纹钢板表面划痕状态及深度。结果显示,在常温条件下,固体润滑助剂的加入不仅降低了耐指纹钢板表面的动摩擦因数,而且还提高了耐指纹钢板表面的抗磨损性和加工成型性。在高温条件下,聚乙烯润滑助剂软化导致耐指纹钢板表面润滑性能降低,并影响其加工成型性。聚四氟乙烯及聚乙烯/四氟润滑助剂的软化点较高,在高温下能够保持润滑粒子表面硬度及润滑性能,从而显著提高耐指纹钢板在高温下的表面润滑性能。     

Experimental Study on Springback of Sheet Metal Single Point Incremental Forming

Sheet metal single point incremental forming (SPIF) is a new technology for flexible process.The spring- back phenomenon in single point incremental forming has been discussed.Effects of forming angle and shape of the part are analysed using simple experimental method.Tool diameter, sheet thickness, step size, material parameters and the interaction of them are also analysed by using orthogonal test.The results show that the primary factor af- fecting springback is forming angle.In addition, springback is decreased when the specimen has a larger forming angle.The order of the four factors that influence springback is tool diameter, sheet thickness, step size and materi- al parameters.The forming precision will increase if springabck is decreased by optimizing the forming parameters.     

FEM supported optimization of bending processes for vibration damping steel sheets

An FE-model has been developed that allows large relative sheet displacement and sheet splitting as well, in order to obtain more information for the bending process of vibration damping steel sheets. In addition to the evaluation of the material data for the visco-elastic resin core the main process parameters for the die bending are optimized. Best results are realized by using higher forming temperatures in combination with a large die width and different flange length. The variation of the punch force and the punch radius can be used to regulate the spring back and the possible splitting of the sheets.     

Deep Drawing of Friction Stir Welded Thin Sheet Aluminium Steel Tailored Hybrids

Friction stir welding undergoes a steep evolution in industrial applications since the invention in the early 1990s. Especially for aluminium alloys in sheet thicknesses over 2 mm a lot of applications are established, whereas a lack in knowledge about friction stir welding of thin sheets with sheet thickness less than 2 mm exists. This article deals with friction stir welding of thin sheet aluminium steel tailored hybrids and their formability. These investigations tend to close the gap of availability of friction stir welded blanks in the range of 1 mm sheet thickness and to offer new applications of this joining technology. For production of aluminium steel tailored hybrids AA5182 with a thickness of 1.2 mm and DC04 in 1.0 mm are used, the joining partners are friction stir welded in a lap joint. Different tool geometries and process parameters are performed to achieve the highest strength and elongation at fracture of the tailored hybrids. The influence of the stirring on the arrangement and distribution of both materials in the welding zone and its microstructure is analysed using light optical and scanning electron microscopy. In addition to tensile tests planar microhardness measurements help to detect the local changes of the mechanical properties in the characteristic zones of the weld seam. Tailored hybrids, which were friction stir welded with the best welding parameters in accordance to the mechanical properties of the weld seams, were used for deep drawing tests of friction stir welded thin sheet aluminium steel tailored hybrids. The maximum drawing ratio of these tailored hybrids coincides with the one of the parent material of AA5182.     

薄板压延中在压边圈叠加振动的模拟试验

应用模拟的方法在薄带摩擦试验中于正压力上叠加低频振动,模拟薄板在叠加振动的压边圈下的摩擦状态,系统地研究了振幅、频率、正压力、拉速、表面与摩擦力的关系.试验表明,在一定的条件下,低频振动叠加是可以改善薄板成形变形区的摩擦状况,降低摩擦力的.     

Effect of Tooling Temperature on the Transient Lubricant Behavior in Hot Metal Forming Processes

In hot metal forming processes, the temperature of the forming tool progressively increases under serial production conditions. Water-based two-phase lubricants may be applied to cool the forming tool and moderate temperature, in which the liquid agent would evaporate or decompose rapidly with dry matter deposited on the tooling surface during the dwelling time before the forming process commences. Herein, an interactive friction model for a two-phase lubricant is developed to predict the transient lubricant behaviors, i.e., predicting the effects of tool temperature and dwelling time on the friction coefficient evolution and lubricant breakdown. Friction tests between a warm pin and hot aluminum workpiece are conducted using the advanced friction testing system, TriboMate, to validate the modeling results.     

Influence of Pre-Deformation on Springback Effect of Advanced High Strength Steel

In sheet metal forming process of automotive components,the springback effect is significant,in particular for Advanced High Strength Steels (AHSS),for example the Dual Phase (DP) steel.Most of construction parts of modern vehicles have very complex shapes and therefore multi-step procedures are necessary to form such a part.Steel sheets,which firstly undergo pre-deformation,can show considerable change in mechanical behavior during the forming process.However,at present there are limited sufficient data concerning pre-deformation effect on the springback available.In this work,a study of influences of different pre-strain levels on the springback of steel sheet made of AHSS materials has been carried out.The sheet specimens were firstly pre-stretched on a tensile testing machine and the pre-strain values were calculated based on the engineering strain.Furthermore,the steel sheets prepared parallel,transverse,and 45° to the rolling direction have been investigated.A modified U-shape forming was used to evaluate the degree of springback of the steel sheets under various conditions.In parallel,FE simulation of the U-shape forming was performed.Both isotropic model using stress-strain responses from tensile test of specimens with different directions and anisotropic Hill’s 48 model have been applied.The experimental results are compared with the sheet metal forming FE simulations.The primarily aim is to basically understand the springback mechanism by means of the simple models.And finally,conclusions with regard to the springback modeling will be presented.