Modeling and analysis of the dynamic behavior of hot water systems with tanks in series

A generalized model for hot water systems with tanks in series is presented in which the loss of heat through an insulation lagging is considered, and the variation of the ambient temperature is taken into account. Using a Laplace transformation, an exact solution is presented which, under certain conditions, reduces to an approximate solution. The conditions for convergence to the approximate solution are discussed, and figures are presented comparing it with the exact solution for several different sets of conditions.     

Smart solar tanks for small solar domestic hot water systems

Investigation of small SDHW systems based on smart solar tanks are presented. The domestic water in a smart solar tank can be heated both by solar collectors and by means of an auxiliary energy supply system. The auxiliary energy supply system––in this study electric heating elements––heats up the hot-water tank from the top and the water volume heated by the auxiliary energy supply system is fitted to the hot-water consumption and consumption pattern. In periods with a large hot-water demand, the volume is large; in periods with a small hot-water demand, the volume is small.Two small SDHW systems, based on differently designed smart solar tanks and a traditional SDHW system were investigated by means of laboratory experiments and theoretical calculations. The investigations showed that the yearly thermal performance of SDHW systems with smart solar tanks is 5–35% higher than the thermal performance of traditional SDHW systems. Estimates indicate that the performance/cost ratio can be improved by up to 25% by using a smart solar tank instead of a traditional tank when the backup energy system is electric heating elements. Further, smart solar tanks are suitable for unknown, variable, large or small hot-water consumption and the risk of oversized solar heating systems and oversized tank volumes is reduced by using smart solar tanks. Based on the investigations it is recommended to start development of smart solar tank units with an oil-fired boiler or a natural gas burner as auxiliary energy supply system.     

Optimal insulation of solar hot water tanks

An expression for the optimal thickness of insulation for maximum net savings (defined as the price of auxiliary energy saved minus the price of insulation) has been obtained. The optimal thicknesses and corresponding savings for popular insulations have been evaluated for Nicosia, Cyprus.     

ICS solar systems with two water tanks

Integrated collector storage (ICS) systems are compact solar water heaters, simple in construction, installation and operation. They are cheaper than flat plate thermosiphonic units, but their higher thermal losses make them suitable mainly for application in locations with favourable weather conditions. Aiming to the achievement of low system height and satisfactory water temperature stratification, new types of ICS systems with two horizontal cylindrical storage tanks, properly mounted in stationary CPC reflector troughs are suggested. The non-uniform distribution of solar radiation on the two absorbing surfaces is combined with the seasonal sun elevation, resulting to effective water heating. In addition, the inverted absorber concept design can be applied to ICS systems with two storage tanks. In this paper, we present the design and performance of double tank ICS solar systems, which are based on the combination of symmetric and asymmetric CPC reflectors with water storage tanks. The analytical equations of the collector geometry of all models are calculated with respect to the radius of the cylindrical water storage tank and the reflector rim angles. Experimental results for the variation of the water temperature inside storage tanks, the mean daily efficiency and the coefficient of thermal losses during night are given for all experimental models. The tests were performed without water draining and the results show that the double tank ICS systems are efficient in water temperature rise during day and satisfactory preservation of the hot water temperature during night, with the upper storage tank being more effective in performance in most of the studied models.     

Performance of n forced circulation water heating systems in series

This paper presents an analytical investigation of the thermal performance of a forced circulation solar water heating system in which n water heating systems are connected in series. Numerical calculations have been made for a typical cold day (26 January 1980) in Delhi, India, and some interesting conclusions have been presented.     

Experimental study of thermally stratified hot water storage tanks

Temperature stratification in hot water storage systems was studied experimentally. In particular, high extraction rates from plastic cylindrical vessels were emphasized. Data were taken at various length to diameter ratios, inlet-outlet temperature differences and mass flow rates. The effect of inlet and exit port configuration on thermal stratification was also studied. The data were empirically correlated to yield useful relations for the design of effective hot water storage systems. Finally, a novel inlet and exit configuration scheme was designed for an 80 gal. (300 l.) and a 500 gal. (1900 l.) storage tank.     

Effect of obstacles with different opening means on thermal stratification in hot water storage tanks

为研究具有内置隔板的太阳能蓄热水箱隔板开孔尺寸及位置对其内部热分层效果的影响,对9种隔板开孔位置的太阳能蓄热水箱内温度场进行了数值分析,结果显示：在相同的流动参数及开孔面积条件下,隔板中心开1个圆孔的水箱热分层效果最好。对于多开孔的水箱,开孔位置对水箱内热分层影响不大,但对蓄热量影响显著。对于隔板中心开1个圆孔的水箱,在不同流动参数条件下,冷、热水出口温差随着冷水入口流速的增大呈先增后减的趋势,当冷水入口流速大于0.9 m/s时,减弱了热分层的稳定性。     

Comparison between models for the simulation of hot water storage tanks

Numerical and experimental analyses of velocity and temperature fields inside a tank submitted to internal natural and mixed convection are presented in this paper. The numerical analyses were performed with two approaches: one using a two-dimensional model in cylindrical coordinates through the finite volume method and another using a one-dimensional model. A turbulence model for low Reynolds numbers was added to the two-dimensional model in mixed convection regime. The two-dimensional model was experimentally validated and then adopted as reference. Its results were compared to those obtained with one-dimensional models (combined with certain computational artifices described in this work) with a good agreement.     

Performance of a gas engine driven heat pump for hot water supply systems

The present work aimed at evaluating the experimental performance of a gas engine heat pump for hot water supply. In order to achieve this objective, a test facility was developed and experiments were performed over a wide range of ambient air temperature (10.9-25.3 °C), condenser water inlet temperature (33-49 °C) and at two engine speeds (1300 and 1750 rpm). Performance characteristics of the gas engine heat pump were characterized by water outlet temperatures, total heating capacity and primary energy ratio. The reported results revealed that hot water outlet temperature between 35 and 70 °C can be obtained over the considered range of the operating parameters. Also, total heating capacity and gas engine heat recovery decrease by 9.3 and 27.7%, respectively, while gas engine energy consumption increases by 17.5% when the condenser water inlet temperature changes from 33 to 49 °C. Total heating capacity, gas engine heat recovery and gas engine energy consumption at ambient air temperature of 25.3 °C are higher than those at ambient air temperature of 10.9 °C by about 10.9, 6.3 and 1.5% respectively. Moreover, system primary energy ratio decreases by 15.3% when the engine speed changes from 1300 to 1750 rpm.     

Reliability of hot water solar systems in Greece

Ten thousand domestic hot water solar systems were surveyed in Greece to assess component and system reliability. Data concerning the functioning condition of the systems was collected, a computerized data base was established and statistical analysis was performed. This work is part of a solar system evaluation program within the European Community. Greece was selected due to the high concentration of solar collector systems and the fact that these systems have reached maturity, the average lifespan being five years.     

Thermally stratified hot water storage systems

Thermal stratification in sensible thermal energy storage systems using water has been studied experimentally. Design correlations, suitable for use with cubical storage tanks, have been derived. Analytical predictions of the transient development of the thermocline are compared with experimental measurements and show good agreement. Linear systems theory is found to be a valid and accurate method of simulating the dynamic performance of stratified thermal energy storage systems if the rate of heat loss from the store is minimised.     

Feasibility of solar hot water systems in Vietnam

This study describes the prospects for solar hot water systems in Vietnam. Changes in domestic energy consumption, both in terms of quantity and patterns of usage, particularly the increase in electricity use for hot water systems, are expected. VIETSIM, a computer program for simulating solar hot water systems in Vietnam will be described. This program has been validated by comparing the results of this program with those from the well-known TRNSYS program and shown to be highly reliable. The feasibility of SHWS will be studied for both the domestic and commercial sectors. For the domestic sector, the feasibility of SHWS will be studied for medium size families in three locations, representing the main climatic types in this country. The optimum criteria for designing SHWS in this sector are also investigated. For the commercial sector, a case of a hotel/office building is analysed and it is shown that the application of SHWS is very feasible due to high electricity prices for the commercial sector. With the natural advantages of high solar intensity, the social advantages of having plentiful and cheap human resources, and an economic environment with high energy and capital inflation, the use of solar hot water systems in this country can be very favourable if the government has the correct policies to encourage this application.     

Mixed convective flow and thermal stratification in hot water storage tanks during discharging mode

An analysis of transient, two dimensional, mixed convection and thermal stratification in cylindrical hot water storage tanks is presented. The governing equations together with inflow and outflow boundary conditions are written for laminar mixed convection flow using a finite volume based computational code in the dynamic discharging mode based on Boussinesq approximations and conjugate heat transfer. The equations are solved numerically and the results are obtained for aspect ratios of the tanks ranging from 1 to 4 in the Richardson number range of 10⁵ to 10⁸ using a finite volume based computational code. The dynamic discharging mode is considered using a conjugate heat transfer model. The transient temperature profiles in the bulk fluid reveal reduced mixing at higher Richardson numbers during discharging process. The system performance in the dynamic mode of operation is defined by a Mix Number and discharging efficiency parameter. Mixing at the bottom of the tank due to inflow of low temperature water from the load is found to have significant influence on the storage efficiency. The discharging efficiency decreases with Fourier number due to increased thermal degradation with time.     

Implications of the modelling of stratified hot water storage tanks in the simulation of CHP plants

This paper considers the effect that different hot water storage tank modelling approaches have on the global simulation of residential CHP plants as well as their impact on their economic feasibility. While a simplified assessment of the heat storage is usually considered in the feasibility studies of CHP plants in buildings, this paper deals with three different levels of modelling of the hot water tank: actual stratified model, ideal stratified model and fully mixed model.These three approaches are presented and comparatively evaluated under the same case of study, a cogeneration plant with thermal storage meeting the loads of an urbanisation located in the Bilbao metropolitan area (Spain). The case of study is simulated by TRNSYS for each one of the three modelling cases and the so obtained annual results are analysed from both a First and Second-Law-based viewpoint.While the global energy and exergy efficiencies of the plant for the three modelling cases agree quite well, important differences are found between the economic results of the feasibility study. These results can be predicted by means of an advanced exergy analysis of the storage tank considering the endogenous and exogenous exergy destruction terms caused by the hot water storage tank.     

Design and optimization of solar industrial hot water systems with storage

This paper presents a new method for the design and optimization of solar industrial process hot water systems with storage. The single-pass open-loop design thermally “decouples” collectors from storage, hence insuring that collectors always heat the coldest fluid possible and that stored heat can be completely depleted by the nighttime load. So the single-pass open-loop design, in spite of the relatively low flow rates entailed, operates at higher system efficiency than conventional system designs. One solved example for an an industrial hot water application shows that the single-pass open-loop design delivers about 30 per cent more useful energy with roughly 30 per cent less storage than the conventional design. Moreover, storage tanks do not have to stand high pressures and can thus be significantly cheaper than in conventional systems. The effects of collector operating time, heat exchangers, and secondary system losses are also treated. The new method is extended to cover systems that require weekend storage. The introduction of weekend storage may be cost effective because it enables the designer to reduce collector area without reducing the yearly useful energy delivered by the system.     

Analysis and optimization of solar hot water systems

Use of a simplified method has been made to calculate the time-dependent thermal performance of various solar domestic hot water systems. to establish the value of solar hot water systems under given economic considerations a thermal analysis was carried out on three basic energy system designs, operating at several locations in the Federal Republic of Germany (F.R.G.) with various solar collectors. It is found that systems design can result in variations up to a factor of two in the per cent solar output. the location and year of operation in the F.R.G. result in variations up to 15 per cent in the solar output. A sensitivity study was also done with respect to all solar collector, systems and user parameters. From this it was found that the dominant effects on the systems performance were due to the collector-dependent parameters.     

Development of cold‐hot water dispenser with thermoelectric module systems

In the present study, the results of a cold‐hot water dispenser with a thermoelectric module system (TMS) are presented. The cold‐hot water dispenser with thermoelectric module system consists of a cold water loop, a hot water loop, a coolant loop, and a thermoelectric module. The thermoelectric cooling and heating modules consist of four and two water blocks, nine and three thermoelectric plates, respectively. The cooling and heating capacities obtained from the cold‐hot water dispenser with TMS are compared with those from a conventional cold‐hot water dispenser with a compression refrigeration system (CRS). As compared with the conventional cold‐hot water dispenser with CRS, the cold‐hot water dispenser with TMS can be operated at the minimum cold water temperature of 10 to 13°C and the maximum hot water temperature of 65°C. The obtained results are expected provide guidelines to design cold‐hot water dispensers with TMS.     

Solar heat pump systems for domestic hot water

Vapour compression heat pumps can upgrade ambient heat sources to match the desired heating load temperature. They can offer considerable increase in operational energy efficiency compared to current water heating systems. Solar heat pumps collect energy not only from solar radiation but also from the ambient air. They can operate even at night or in totally overcast conditions. Since the evaporator/collector operates at temperatures lower than ambient air temperature it does not need glazing or a selective coating to prevent losses. Currently, however, they are not used much at all in domestic or commercial water heating systems. In this paper comparison is made of a conventional solar hot water system, a conventional air source heat pump hot water system and a solar heat pump water heating system based on various capital city locations in Australia. A summary is given of specific electricity consumption, initial and operating costs, and greenhouse gas generation of the three systems dealt with in this paper. The ultimate choice of unit for a particular location will depend heavily on the solar radiation, climate and the local price paid for electricity to drive or boost the unit chosen.     

Optimum design criteria for solar hot water systems

This paper is concerned with the optimisation of some design criteria of SHW systems intended for residential and hotel applications. For this purpose, a system model based on TRNSYS programme has been used to correlate the performance and cost effectiveness of the system with a number of key design criteria which include the Collector to Consumer Factor (FCC) expressed in m² of collector per consumer and the Collector to Load Factor (FCL) expressed in m² of collector per annual GJ of thermal load.