全自动磨抛机在钢铁金相制样中的应用

主要介绍了全自动磨抛机制备钢铁金相试样的方法。结合制备的金相试样实际效果,说明全自动磨抛机使用过程中的金相试样磨削、超声清洗、抛光、冲洗干燥等步骤以及如何调整设备运行的参数,以实现全程自动化制备高质量的金相试样。结果表明,全自动磨抛机采用合适的运行步骤及参数后,能稳定自动化制备出高质量的金相试样,避免了手工等金相制样造成的假象,提高了后续检测结果的准确性。     

Experimental study on grinding force and grinding temperature of Aermet 100 steel in surface grinding

This paper investigates grinding force and grinding temperature of ultra-high strength steel Aermet 100 in conventional surface grinding using a single alumina wheel, a white alumina wheel and a cubic boron nitride wheel. First, mathematical models of grinding force and grinding temperature for three wheels were established. Then, the role of chip formation force and friction force in grinding force was investigated and thermal distribution in contact zone between workpiece and wheel was analyzed based on the mathematical model. The experimental result indicated that the minimum grinding force and the maximum grinding force ratio under the same grinding parameters can be achieved when using a CBN wheel and a single alumina wheel, respectively. When the phenomenon of large grinding force and high grinding temperature appeared, the workpiece material would adhere locally to the single alumina wheel. Grinding temperature was in a high state under the effect of two main aspects: poor thermal properties of grinding wheel and low coolant efficiency. The predicted value of grinding force and grinding temperature were compared with those experimentally obtained and the results show a reasonable agreement.     

Predictive modeling of surface roughness in grinding

The surface roughness is a variable often used to describe the quality of ground surfaces as well as to evaluate the competitiveness of the overall grinding system. This paper presents the prediction of the arithmetic mean surface roughness based on a probabilistic undeformed chip thickness model. The model expresses the ground finish as a function of the wheel microstructure, the process kinematic conditions, and the material properties. The analysis includes a geometrical analysis of the grooves left on the surface by ideal conic grains. The material properties and the wheel microstructure are considered in the surface roughness prediction through the chip thickness model. A simple expression that relates the surface roughness with the chip thickness was found, which was verified using experimental data from cylindrical grinding.     

振动精抛磨块的制备工艺研究

振动抛光韧而粘的异型曲表面零件是目前较为理想的光整加工方法之一,其关键之一在于抛光磨块的合理制备。采用白刚玉（WA）和立方氮化硼（CBN）混合磨料与陶瓷结合剂、用粉末冶金的方法,配以适当的烧结制度烧制而成的振动精抛专用磨块,单向振动和三维振动抛光试验表明,该类磨块用于振动抛光钛合金、不锈钢和铝合金等材料的工件表面,效果明显,表面粗糙度数值可达Ra0．1μm,抛光效率可提高约三倍。     

Research on the fractal of surface topography of grinding

Fractal theory is widely used in analysing the topography of machined surfaces. In this paper, the formula that describes the relation between the fractal dimension D and R_a or R_q or S_m of surface roughness of different ground surfaces is obtained by measuring ground surfaces and researching the fractal features of them. Using a computer, a theoretical basis is built for the fractal simulation of the ground surface.     

New methods for calculating the force distribution within belt grinding processes

In order to simulate belt grinding processes (e.g. for process planning or path planning) one usually needs information about the contact zone and contact forces. Typically, an unacceptable computational effort is required for good simulation results, since these contact problems are usually of a nonlinear nature. In this paper, the application of support vector machines (SVM) is presented. The SVM is a learning machine that aims at finding a function that optimally fits given observations. The main advantage of SVM is its fast evaluation during simulation. However, a single training phase with an extensive amount of observation data has to be done once before the simulation can take place. From a practical point of view, it is very often not feasible to sample these observation data by experiments. At this point special Finite element methods for contact problems can be applied very efficiently. In order to obtain as accurate as possible training data, an adaptive finite element method for contact problems has been developed.     

CMP抛光半导体晶片中抛光液的研究

本文分析了化学机械抛光(CMP)半导体晶片过程中抛光液的重要作用,总结了抛光液的组成及其化学性能(氧化剂、磨料及pH值等)和物理性能(流速、粘性及温度)对抛光效果的影响规律,研究发现:酸性抛光液常用于抛光金属材料,pH最优值为4,碱性抛光液常用于抛光非金属材料,pH最优值为10～11.5;氧化剂能有效提高金属材料的抛光效率和表面平整度;磨料的种类、浓度及尺寸会影响抛光效果;分散剂有助于保持抛光液的稳定性;抛光初始阶段宜采用较低流速,然后逐渐提高;抛光液的粘性会影响晶片与抛光垫之间的接触模式、抛光液的均布、流动及加工表面的化学反应;抛光液温度的升高有助于提高抛光效率.最后本文指出了抛光液循环使用的重要意义及常用方法.     

3D surface topography assessment of the effect of different electrolytes during electrochemical polishing of EDM surfaces

In many countries the most common polishing practice in die making is to hand polish the part as a finishing operation after the electro discharge machining process (EDM). The usual polishing abrasives are silicon carbide paper and diamond paste of different grit sizes.However, during the last decade researchers especially in Japan and the USA have tried to combine EDM and electrochemical machining (ECM) in one machine so as to use the positive aspects of each individual process. The ECM process uses high density, typically 50 A/cm², and also a pulse current with a servo-controlled electrode. These investigators have mostly used sodium nitrate solutions (of different concentrations) as the electrolyte.This paper deals with an experiment that was undertaken in order to assess the effect of four different electrolytes in an electrochemical polishing process (ECP) on the surface topography of EDM surfaces. The primary set of 3D surface parameters was used as a basis to characterise the surface produced by the combined processes in different electrolytic media.     

Investigation of grinding modes in horizontal surface grinding of optical glass BK7

Grinding is one of the most important processes to manufacture hard-brittle materials such as optical glass. It is often desired to increase the material removal rate while maintaining the desired surface quality. The success of this approach relies on the better understanding of the relationship between the grinding modes and the characteristics of surface and subsurface integrities. Based on the kinematic analysis of horizontal surface grinding as well as the features of grinding-induced cracks, four grinding modes were proposed. They are brittle mode, semi-brittle mode, semi-ductile mode and ductile mode. The horizontal surface grinding of optical glass BK7 has been studied using diamond grinding wheel. The four different grinding modes have been investigated with the characteristics of surface morphologies before and after etching, surface roughness, subsurface damages as well as indentation depth. It was found that the level of surface roughness and depth of subsurface damage were strongly dependent on grinding mode. This study provides valuable insights into the material removal mechanism and the dependence of surface and subsurface integrities on grinding mode.     

模具自由曲面抛光过程的分析与研究

针对模具自由曲面抛光中受几何、物理及力学等因素的影响,从抛光工具与自由曲面之间的接触及摩擦角度分析,深入研究自由曲面的抛光机理,并对影响抛光工艺过程的主要因素进行分析,探讨自由曲面抛光过程中获取高质量表面的方法。     

焊缝磨抛机器人视觉算法开发及视觉系统测试实验

将视觉系统搭载于磨抛机器人,实现磨抛机器人在复杂的工业环境下对大型结构件实施焊缝自动磨抛和提高磨抛效率及精度的有效方法。通过结构光光心提取、ROT定位、列高斯差分及焊缝边缘位置提取等算法,成功实现对结构光光心及特征线的提取和对焊缝边缘点的检测,并开展了磨抛机器人视觉系统测试实验研究。实验结果表明:所搭建的视觉系统能够满足焊缝磨抛过程中对焊缝跟踪和测量的要求,且算法快速精确,系统稳定可靠。     

一种圆柱体小零件机器人自动打磨抛光系统的设计

为了适应大批量生产需要,提高圆柱体小零件生产加工效率,设计了一种机器人高效自动打磨抛光系统。该系统采用机器人自动夹持工件并回转的加工方式,实现了圆柱体零件的径向圆周自动加工;采用翻转台对工件进行上下翻转的加工工艺,实现了圆柱体零件的轴向自动加工。通过一次夹持多个零件进行加工的装夹方式,实现了在一定机器人负载能力下加工效率的最大化;运用模块化设计理念,可根据工艺需求设置多个不同加工工位,实现了工作系统的柔性配置和全流程自动化加工;加装了可调节柔顺装置,实现了工艺参数的可调可控,保证了打磨抛光效果。将该系统应用于不锈钢保温杯的加工。试验结果表明:该系统能够实现圆柱体小零件的大批量高效自动化加工,可以满足实际生产需求。     

基于支持向量机的齿轮故障分类

齿轮是旋转机械中的关键元件。提出了一个基于支持向量机的齿轮多故障分类方法。齿轮状态被划分为正常、齿轮磨损和断齿状态。振动信号的均方根和小波包能量被选作为分类器的特征参数。分类器选用支持向量机（SVM）。SVM具有良好的实用性及多分类能力。实验结果表明：提出的方法能很好地区分齿轮故障。     

Modelling and simulation of process: machine interaction in grinding

This article presents an overview of current simulation methods describing the interaction of grinding process and grinding machine structure, e.g., vibrations, deflections, or thermal deformations. Innovative process models which describe the effects of the grinding wheel–workpiece interaction inside the contact zone are shown in detail. Furthermore, simulation models representing the static and dynamic behaviour of a grinding machine and its components are discussed. Machine tool components with a high influence on the process results are modelled more detailed than those with low influence. The key issue of the paper is the coupling of process and machine tool models for predicting the interactions of process and machine. Several coupling methods are introduced and the improvements of the simulation results are documented. On the basis of the presented simulation approaches, grinding processes and machines can be designed more effectively resulting in higher workpiece quality and process stability.     

Effect of grinding wheel spindle vibration on surface roughness and subsurface damage in brittle material grinding

The external interference and vibration can seriously affect the machining errors in brittle materials grinding process. This paper proposes a new model to analyze the relationship between surface roughness (SR) and subsurface damage (SSD) depth on the basis of grinding kinematics analysis and indentation fracture mechanics of brittle materials taking the wheel spindle vibration into account. The basic equations, for example, equations of grain trajectory and penetration depth are derived in new forms. Based on the basic equations above, the existing SR and SSD formulae are modified for further study. The effects of grinding and vibration parameters on SR and SSD are respectively analyzed in detail. Results show that both SR and SSD increase with the increase of table speed and vibration amplitude resulting in bad surface and subsurface quality. On the other hand, both the increasing grinding speed and decreasing vibration frequency can improve the quality of ground surface and subsurface with small SR and SSD. In addition, the increase of initial grinding depth and vibration initial phase increase the depth of SSD but have little effect on SR. The penetration depth and distance between grain's tip and finished surface are the two main factors considered to cause the different effect laws on SR and SSD among these parameters. Experiment is carried out to validate the rationality of proposed model. The effect trends of various grinding parameters on SR obtained by our model consist with measured experimental data. The typical subsurface crack system is clearly revealed through the experimental observation on SSD using SEM. Finally, the relationship between the two is fitted utilizing quadratic polynomial. Results show that the SSD depth is nonlinear monotone increasing with SR and the fitting accuracy is more or less affected by both grinding and vibration parameters.     

Correlating surface roughness and vibration on plunge cylindrical grinding of steel

Since the wear of a grinding wheel has a direct effect on the workpiece vibration and both have effect on the workpiece quality, the main goal of this work is to study the relation between the process vibration signals and the workpiece quality (mean roughness, circularity and burning) as the grinding wheel gets worn, in an attempt to use these signals to decide the exact moment to dress the wheel. In order to reach this goal, several experiments were carried out in a plunge cylindrical grinding operation of an AISI 52100 quenched and tempered steel, having as input variables the dressing overlap ratio, the spark out time and the workpiece velocity. The output variables were the workpiece surface roughness and circularity and also the process vibration during both, the cutting phase and the spark out phase of the grinding cycle. The main conclusions were: (1) it is possible to have good workpiece quality even with a vibration level much higher than that obtained with a recently dressed wheel; (2) vibration during cutting phase and at the end of complete spark out can be used to monitor the wheel condition at least when high dressing overlap ratio is used; and (3) the decrease in the spark out time makes the vibration at the end of spark out increase a lot, but does not cause such a damage in surface roughness. This fact makes the use of partial spark out feasible in some situations.     

Automatic search for wheel position in flute grinding of cutting tools

The profile of helical flutes has a great influence on properties of cutting tools. This paper presents an automatic method of searching for a wheel position in flute grinding for a given shape of the helical flute and grinding wheel profile. The algorithm is based on the main loop and two subroutines. The first algorithm is dedicated to the simulation of the flute profile by splitting the grinding wheel into many thin disks. The second algorithm represents the numerical evaluation of the reached profile that results from previous grinding simulation. Finally, the experimental evaluation using particle swarm optimization is presented and obtained results discussed.     

Simulation of precision grinding process, part 1: generation of the grinding wheel surface

This paper is in two parts describing the kinematic simulation of the grinding process. The first part is concerned with the generation of the grinding wheel surface. A numerical procedure for effectively generating the grinding wheel topography is suggested. The procedure is based on the transformation of a random field. The sufficient condition for the transformation is discussed, and two transformations satisfying the condition are introduced. Numerical examples are used to illustrate the viability of the approach. It will be shown that the generated and measured grinding wheel topography share the same probabilistic characteristics.     

Wave-shift and its effect on surface quality in super-abrasive grinding

One of the problems limiting the use of many super-abrasive wheels is the wheel run-out, which cannot be effectively reduced below the value of several micrometers. Work waviness, generated by the run-out, depends on a wave-shift, overlapping the pattern of wheel revolutions in subsequent revolutions of the workpiece. A suitably selected wave-shift can result in a significant reduction of waviness. The present day machines are not equipped with wheel-work synchronisation control and wave-shift remains one of the random factors in the grinding process. The wave-shift phenomenon was investigated in the mid seventies in conjunction with the wheel unbalance of conventional wheels. The run-out of these wheels can be reduced to a fraction of a micrometer by suitable balancing and dressing so the wave-shift control, difficult to implement at that time, was not required. The present super-abrasive wheels exhibit significant run-outs and the advances in motor control make wheel-work synchronisation of sufficient accuracy possible.     

A study on surface grinding of 300 mm silicon wafers

Most of today's IC chips are made from 200 mm or 150 mm silicon wafers. It is estimated that the transition from 200 mm to 300 mm wafers will bring a die cost saving of 30–40%. To meet their customers' needs, silicon wafer manufacturers are actively searching for cost-effective ways to manufacture 300 mm wafers with high quality. This paper presents the results of a study on surface grinding of 300 mm silicon wafers. In this study, a three-factor two-level full factorial design is employed to reveal the main effects as well as the interaction effects of three process parameters (wheel rotational speed, chuck rotational speed and feedrate). The process outputs studied include spindle motor current, surface roughness, grinding marks and depth of subsurface cracks.