Fear of success: Motive and cognition.

Conducted 2 experiments to investigate whether projective and objective methods of measuring fear of success (FOS) differentially enable the assessment of motives and cognitions. In Exp I, 67 male and 85 female 14- and 15-yr-olds wrote 3 stories to story cues representing sex-appropriate success, sex-inappropriate success, and sex-appropriate nonsuccess. Ss then completed a concern-over-negative-consequences-of-success scale (CONCOSS), and their stories were judged for negative content. In Exp II, 29 14- and 15-yr-old girls viewed a film conveying positive information about a specific sex-inappropriate activity, and measures of FOS were taken 2 days later. 23 controls who did not view the film completed the same procedure as Ss in Exp I. Overall results reveal that, contrary to the predictions of motivation theory, stories written in response to sex-inappropriate success cues did not correlate negatively with sex-appropriate nonsuccess cues. Viewing the film resulted in long-term positive changes in story content, consistent with the cognition explanation but not in long-term change in CONCOSS score, consistent with the motive explanation. Sex and ability differences were found on CONCOSS but not on the projective measure, and the 2 measures did not correlate. Findings suggest that sex-inappropriate cues are culturally marked and, lacking the ambiguity characteristic of other projective tests, elicit culturally based rather than motive-based stories. (49 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Fear of success in males and females: 1965 and 1971.

Replicated part of M. S. Horner's research (1965) on fear of success in college women and introduced 3 variations in the story cue used to measure fear of success. A sample of 245 male and female undergraduates at the same university was divided into 4 groups. All received the original instruments to measure achievement motives and fear of failure. Group 1 received the original fear of success cue. Each of the other groups had one aspect different: in Group 2 the setting was changed to a less masculine academic area; in Group 3 the achievement was communicated privately rather than publicly; in Group 4 the competitive aspect was minimized. None of the variations diminished fear of success. The frequency for females was the same as earlier, but for males it increased from 8% to 77%. For females, the most common theme was affiliative loss because of success; for males, it was questioning the value of the achievement. Achievement motive scores were lower in 1971 than in 1965. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Gender differences in the academic locus of control beliefs of young children.

Conducted a statistical combination on past research examining gender differences in the locus of control beliefs of elementary school children. The review revealed that 235 females tended to score more internally than 200 males in total- and failure-outcome locus of control, as measured by the Intellectual Achievement Responsibility (IAR) Questionnaire. A new administration of the IAR (210 males, 215 females) revealed significantly more female internality for both success and failure outcomes—but only at the end of the school year. Also, females cited effort as the cause of success more often than males. These results are at odds with those found in studies that manipulated success and failure events. Possible reasons for the reversal are discussed. The results suggest (a) greater female internality exists in elementary school, but the gender difference is small; (b) the roots of lesser female adult achievement behavior may not be found in elementary school belief systems; and (c) it may be improper to conclude that young females express a helplessness pattern of attributions with regard to the achievement domain. (41 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Fear of success in 1965 and 1974: A follow-up study.

72 men and 86 women from the 177 college students in M. S. Horner's original 1965 fear-of-success study were interviewed by mail. Measures of fear of success, achievement motivation, and postcollege experiences, particularly pregnancy, were obtained. The 1965 data measuring fear of success and achievement motivation were recoded for comparison with the 1974 data. Recoded 1965 fear-of-success scores indicated a higher frequency, particularly for men, than previously reported, suggesting that recent studies indicating an increase in men since 1965 may reflect in part more liberal coding. Comparison between recoded 1965 and 1974 fear-of-success scores yielded the following results: (a) Women, but not men, showed consistency in their scores. (b) Although in 1965 women had more fear of success than men, these same women 9 yrs later had less. (c) Fear of success in women decreased significantly, while fear of success in men increased but not significantly. Additional analyses led to a questioning of the validity of the fear-of-success measure for men. The measure for women, on the other hand, received support to supplement Horner's original validation: Women high in fear of success in 1965 were significantly more likely than those low in fear of success to become pregnant when on the verge of success relative to their husbands or boyfriends. (16 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Stage of change as a predictor of success in weight control in adult women.

Weight change over 3 years was examined in a large and heterogeneous sample of women as a function of stage of change for weight control. Women were classified into Precontemplation, Contemplation, Preparation, and Action stages on the basis of reports of current and past weight control behaviors and future intentions. Stage of change did not predict success in weight control. Mean weight changes over 3 years were 1.1 kg, 1.0 kg, 2.1 kg, and 2.3 kg for Precontemplation, Contemplation, Preparation, and Action stages, respectively. The findings call into question the generality of the stages-of-change classification system across behavioral domains. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Abuse, health locus of control, and perceived health among HIV-positive women.

This study of 230 predominantly poor Hispanic and African American women aged 25 to 61 years living with HIV/AIDS in New York City revealed high levels of both sexual (39%) and physical (44%) trauma before the age of 16. Both types of early trauma were correlated with later trauma, and all forms of trauma were significantly associated with current perceived health. In multivariate analyses controlling for relevant covariates, the Powerful Others and Internal Control subscales of the Multidimensional Health Locus of Control Scales (K. A. Wallston, B. S. Wallston, & R. DeVellis, 1978) acted as independent predictors of perceived health rather than (as hypothesized) mediators of the association between trauma and perceived health. Findings underscore the importance of addressing trauma and perceptions of control over one's physical health in the provision of health services to HIV-positive women. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Predicting success in weight reduction as a function of locus of control: A unidimensional and multidimensional approach.

Data from 34 females in an overweight treatment program show significant correlations between internal scores on Rotter's Internal-External Control Scale and both completion and success in the program. Locus of control should be considered in the selection of applicants for self-control weight reduction therapy. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Role of health locus of control beliefs in cancer screening of elderly Hispanic women.

Examined the health locus of control beliefs of elderly Hispanic women and relation between the frequency of breast self-examination (BSE), attention to health-related information, and recency of Pap smear and physician breast examination. As hypothesized, holding a belief that health outcomes are controlled by oneself (internal control) was positively related to screening behaviors over which one has a high degree of personal control, such as frequency of BSE and attention to health-related information. Belief that medical professionals control health outcomes was positively related to physician-dependent screening activities, such as recency of Pap smear and physician breast exam. The findings confirm the specificity of association between health control beliefs and preventive behaviors and demonstrate the importance of these beliefs in medical screening by Hispanic women. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Spiritual health locus of control and breast cancer beliefs among urban African American women.

The present study examined the relationship between spiritual health locus of control, breast cancer beliefs, and mammography utilization among a sample of 1,227 African American women from urban public health centers. Spiritual health locus of control was conceptualized as having an active and passive dimension, empowering individuals in their health beliefs and behaviors or rendering them to rely on a higher power (e.g., God) to determine their health outcomes, respectively. The active dimension was negatively associated with perceived benefits of mammography and positively associated with perceived barriers to mammography. The active and passive spiritual dimensions are distinct from internal and external health locus of control. Further study of their associations with other health-related beliefs and behaviors is warranted. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Impact of divorce on locus of control orientation in adult women: A longitudinal study.

Examined the relation between getting divorced and changes in the individual's locus of control orientation using longitudinal data from the National Longitudinal Surveys of Labor Market Experience. The sample contained 1,814 White women aged 32–46 yrs who were in their 1st marriage in 1969. Marital status and locus of control (an 11-item abbreviated version of Rotter's Internal–External Locus of Control Scale) were measured in 1969, 1972, and 1977. Based on the literature on locus of control and life events and on divorce, stress, and mental health, it was hypothesized that divorced Ss, in comparison with those who remained married, would show a short-term increase in externality from 1969 to 1972, followed by a return over the next 5 yrs to levels of locus of control comparable to that of the group who remained married. It was also hypothesized that locus of control scores would not predict the likelihood of becoming divorced over the 8-yr period. All 3 hypotheses were confirmed. Findings are discussed in the context of 2 issues: the influence of important life events on locus of control and the causal direction in the well-documented association between divorce and mental health. (24 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Personal history for psychological stress related to locus of control orientation among college women.

Analyzed retrospective reports on stressful life events throughout childhood and adolescence and a measure of internal-external locus of control orientation (Nowicki-Strickland Personal Reaction Survey) for 34 female undergraduates. Data were analyzed by the Mann-Whitney U test comparing accrued positive, negative, and neutral stress for internals vs externals at each of 4 age periods. Findings indicate that (a) only events associated with remembered affective significance were related to locus of control orientation; (b) affectively significant, recalled life stresses (preschool) were related to reporting a strong external control orientation in adulthood; and (c) recalled positive life stresses over which the respondent likely had some control during high school years tended to be related to a strong internal control orientation. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Fear of success and task difficulty: Effects on graduate students' final exam performance.

Investigated the relationship of fear of success and fear of failure, their interactions with task difficulty, and whether sex differences exist on these traits. Final examination scores, in addition to fear-of-success and fear-of-failure scores, were obtained on low-, medium-, and high-difficulty items for 54 female and 14 male graduate-professional students. Measures included 3 recently developed instruments—M. S. Horner's new (1973) empirically derived fantasy-based scoring system, M. Pappo's (1972) Fear of Success Questionnaire, and M. Zuckerman and S. N. Allison's (1976) Fear of Success Scale. It was found that, overall, neither fear of success nor fear of failure interacted consistently with item difficulty to affect examination performance. Fear-of-success instruments correlated positively with fear of failure; means of males and females were not significantly different on either fear of success or fear of failure. Overall, fear of failure may influence performance more substantially than fear of success. (16 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Perceived locus of control and personal adjustment.

Administered rotter's internal-external control of reinforcement (i-e) scale and the personal orientation inventory (poi), a measure of self-actualization, to 55 male and 55 female undergraduates. For females, the major poi subscale, internal support, was significantly (p     

Multidimensional locus of control in psychiatric patients.

At 1-mo intervals, functionally psychotic and neurotic inpatients (N = 165) were given 3 Likert scales to measure different aspects of locus of control: internality, control by powerful others, and control by chance forces. Initial testing within 5 days of hospitalization indicated that Ss perceived significantly more control by powerful others and chance forces than normal samples, and psychotics scored higher than neurotics. Committed Ss believed that powerful others controlled their lives, and readmitted Ss had higher perceptions of control by powerful others and chance forces than new Ss. Factor analysis indicated that the dimensions of control by powerful others and control by chance forces were consistent factors, while only 1/2 of the internality scale items were responded to as a single factor. During the 1st mo of hospitalization, Ss gained in their belief in internal control. However, initial scale scores were not significantly different from those obtained before discharge. Possible reasons for the lack of change are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Perceived parental characteristics, locus of control orientation, and behavioral correlates of locus of control.

Attempted to ascertain perceived parental behavior associated with locus of control orientation. 112 high school seniors (58 males and 54 females) completed the Nowicki-Strickland Personal Reaction Survey and the Parent-Child Interaction Rating Scale. Generally, perceived paternal nurturance was associated with female internality, and perceived maternal nurturance was associated with male internality. All Ss perceived parents as having a similar locus of control orientation. In Phase 2 of the study, behavior associated with Ss' locus of control and perceived parental locus of control orientation was investigated. Ss' expressed internality was associated with higher achievement for males and with greater social involvement for females. Perceived paternal internality was significantly associated with greater female achievement. Results are discussed in terms of social learning and cultural role-expectancy theory. (19 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Group measure of locus of control.

Gave the Gruen, Korte, Stephens Internal-External Scale, a new measure of locus of control designed for use with children of differing socioeconomic and ethnic status, to a total of 1,100 black, white, and Spanish, moderately disadvantaged children from Grades 2, 4, and 6. The white children were compared to a sample of 155 affluent white children. As predicted, older children made more internal responses than younger children and the affluent children made more internal responses than the disadvantaged. Also, white children made more internal responses than either black or Spanish children. Among black Ss there was a significant sex difference, females being more internal than males. Further analyses with another sample of 50 white 2nd graders revealed that the locus of control scores were significantly related to grade point averages, but not significantly related to scores on the Otis-Lennon Mental Ability Test or the Crandall Social Desirability Scale. The scores on the measure of locus of control were generally skewed toward the internal end of the scale but were most discriminative at the 2nd-grade level. Internal consistency and test-retest reliability estimates for Gruen, Korte, Stephens Internal-External scores were moderately high. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Internal-external locus of control and perception of disability.

Collected ratings of the seriousness of various disabilities from 211 male and 268 female undergraduates. Ss rated the disabilities as they would affect "self" and "other" in their feelings about themselves and in their social relationships. As predicted, externally controlled Ss (as measured by the Rotter Internal-External Control Scale) rated physical disabilities as more debilitating than did the internally controlled. In contrast to externals, internals rated emotional disorders as being more debilitating relative to physical disabilities. Data are interpreted as adding to the construct validity of internal-external locus of control. Implications pertaining to reaction to disability are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)