The measurement of psychological androgyny: an extended replication

The Bem Sex-Role Inventory (BSRI), the recently developed measure for psychological androgyny, was administered to 344 middle-Tennessee high school and university students. The BSRS's reliability coefficients and mean scores were very similar to those reported earlier for California junior college and university students, respectively. The present scoring patterns for the BSRI remained unchanged with the introduction of the four "familial context" variables of sex of Ss' siblings, sex of Ss' nearest-in-age sibling, parent whom the Ss considered emotionally warmest, and parent whom the Ss would most prefer to be like. Contrary to Bem's original findings, the present results with the BSRI suggested that Ss' responses to the measure may be affected by the social desirability phenomenon. Moreover, scores on the BSRI did not correlate consistently or highly with those presently obtained with a symbolic sex-role measure and a verbal sex-role scale. This lack of construct validity has been reported previously in at least two other studies. Though apparently reliable, the validity of the BSI remains problematic.     

The nonverbal display of psychological androgyny.

Attempted to determine how individual differences in sex-role orientation, as assessed by the Bem Sex-Role Inventory, were related to undergraduates' display of nonverbal behaviors indicative of "masculinity" and "femininity." Smiling, gazing (feminine behaviors), interrupting, and filled pausing (masculine behaviors) were coded for sex-typed males and females and androgynous males and females assigned to either an instrumental situation or an expressive situation in 36 same-sex dyads. Analyses of nonverbal behavior showed that androgynous Ss showed a blend of both masculine and feminine behaviors. The blend was the product of the addition of cross-sex behavior and deletion of some sex-consonant behavior. In contrast, sex-typed Ss showed more cross-sex behavioral avoidance and more sex-consonant behavioral cohesion. Results are discussed in terms of S. L. Bem's (1974, 1975) and J. T. Spence and R. L. Helmreich's (1977) conceptions of masculinity and femininity. (23 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Toward mental health: The benefits of psychological androgyny.

Addresses the importance of psychological androgyny—defined as possessing a high degree of instrumental and expressive qualities—to considerations of sex roles, equality, and mental health. The personality and behavioral correlates of androgyny are summarized, implications for mental health professions, such as readjustment of their conceptions of what constitutes "healthy" personal value systems, are discussed. (38 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

On the utility of alternative procedures for assessing psychological androgyny.

S. L. Bem's definition of psychological androgny as the integration of both masculinity and femininity within a single individual obscures a potentially important distinction between those individuals who score high on both masculinity and femininity and those who score low on both. To assess the importance of this distinction, the Bem Sex-Role Inventory was administered to 375 male and 290 female undergraduates, along with a variety of other pencil-and-paper questionnaires, and in addition, the results of Bem's earlier laboratory studies were reanalyzed with the low-low scorers separated out. High-high and low-low scorers did not differ significantly on the Attitudes Toward Women Scale, Rotter's Internal-External Locus of Control Scale, the Mach IV Scale, or the Attitudes Toward Problem-Solving Scale, nor did they differ significantly in 2 of Bem's 3 previous studies. Nevertheless, low-low scorers were significantly lower in self-esteem (Texas Social Behavior Inventory) than high-high scorers, they displayed significantly less responsiveness toward a kitten, and, among men, they reported significantly less self-disclosure (Jourard's Self-Disclosure Scale). Although the results are not consistent, it is concluded that a distinction between high-high and low-low scorers does seem to be warranted. (29 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Problems associated with the typological measurement of sex roles and androgyny.

Four new measures of sex role style—the Bem Sex-Role Inventory (BSRI), the Personal Attributes Questionnaire (PAQ), the Personality Research Form (PRF) ANDRO scale, and the Masculinity and Femininity scales of the Adjective Check List (ACL)—each define sex role style and androgyny in similar conceptual and psychometric terms. Although these scales have often been used interchangeably, the current study examined interscale comparability among these inventories. Although correlations among the respective masculinity and femininity row (continuous) scale scores on the BSRI, PAQ, PRF ANDRO scale, and the ACL were moderately high, a large proportion of the 130 undergraduates were classified into different sex role categories (masculine typed, feminine typed, androgynous, or undifferentiated), with the category depending on the inventory used. In fact, when corrected for chance agreements, the majority of Ss (61%) were actually categorized discrepantly by any pair of inventories. This suggests limited comparability of sex role research findings based on different inventories, and when sex role styles are dichotomized into broad typological quadrants, as is the current practice in sex role research, substantial predictive utility is lost. (6 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Creativity, masculinity, femininity, and three models of psychological androgyny.

Five empirically derived indices of creative self-concept correlated positively with several indices of psychological masculinity in 85 female and 105 male undergraduates and somewhat negatively with indices of psychological femininity among males and females. Among the measures used were the Bem Sex-Role Inventory and Adjective Check List. Production on the Alternate Uses Test correlated positively with masculinity and negatively with femininity in a subset of 50 males explicitly instructed to "be creative." As a reflection of this positive association between masculinity and creativity indices, Ss defined as masculine or androgynous, using conventional median-split methods, obtained significantly higher creativity indices than conventionally defined feminine or unclassifiable Ss. Results are discussed in terms of (a) the applicability of balance, additive, and multiplicative models of androgyny to the study of creativity; (b) the factorial complexity of several currently used masculinity and femininity scales; and (c) possible conflicts between sex-role expectations and the self-concepts of creative females and apparent congruencies between sex-role expectations and the self-concepts of creative males. (85 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

An investigation of the relationship between psychological androgyny and components of self-concept.

357 college students participated in a study designed to investigate whether the higher levels of self-esteem and self-concept of androgynous individuals are due to an integration of both masculine and feminine traits or due only to a high level of masculinity. Ss completed the Bem Sex-Role Inventory and a semantic differential scale previously shown to assess 4 dimensions of the self-concept. The androgynous group scored higher than the undifferentiated group on adjustment to the environment. The androgynous and masculine groups scored higher than the feminine and undifferentiated groups on achievement/leadership, which tends to reflect an instrumental role. Androgynous and feminine Ss scored higher than masculine and undifferentiated Ss on congeniality/sociability, which reflects an expressive role. The masculine and feminine groups scored at appropriate ends of the masculinity/femininity self-concept dimension, with the androgynous and undifferentiated groups at intermediate levels. These results support S. L. Bem's (1975, 1977) theory of androgynous flexibility. (20 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

A new measure of psychological androgyny based on the Personality Research Form.

Describes the development and validation of the PRF (Personality Research Form) ANDRO scale whose Masculinity and Femininity subscales were drawn, on the basis of theoretical definitions, from the item pool of the Personality Research Form. Using data obtained from 2,146 undergraduates, the subscales of the PRF ANDRO scale are shown to be independent, reliable, minimally related to socially desirable responding, and substantially related to corresponding subscales on the Bem Sex-Role Inventory (correlations between .50 and .65) and to major personality dimensions. Further evidence of construct validity is adduced from the score patterns in 18 different samples that included over 6,000 Ss from populations varying in age, education, occupation, and clinical status. Since the PRF ANDRO scale can be scored from the answer sheets of the Personality Research Form, other investigators may reanalyze prior studies with particular regard to the proposition that high levels of Masculinity and Femininity, jointly denoting psychological androgyny, predict greater interpersonal competence and transsituational adaptability than do traditionally sex-typed role orientations. (35 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Theory and measurement of androgyny: A reply to the Pedhazur-Tetenbaum and Locksley-Colten critiques.

Discusses issues raised in the critiques of E. J. Pedhazur and T. J. Tetenbaum (see record 1980-29271-001) and of A. Locksley and M. Colten (see record 1980-30293-001). It is noted that (a) the Bem Sex-Role Inventory (BSRI) is based on a theory about both the cognitive processing and the motivational dynamics of sex-typed and androgynous individuals; (b) the strategy of item selection for the BSRI followed directly from the theory and utilized established techniques for test construction; (c) a short BSRI has been developed in accordance with the results of various factor analyses; (d) current research is testing the hypothesis that sex-typed and androgynous individuals differ in the extent to which gender serves as a cognitive schema; and (e) the concept of androgyny contains an inner contradiction and hence a built-in obsolescence. (34 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Somatic androgyny and cognitive abilities.

Examined somatic androgyny and IQ in 3 longitudinal studies, conducted at the Institute of Human Development, in order to determine how robust the androgyny–ability relationships reported in recent studies are, and whether these relationships are found after sexual maturity is attained. Results do not reveal significant relationships between androgyny and abilities at either adolescence or middle adulthood, although trends are in the predicted directions. There were no systematic findings from analyses separating aspects of somatic androgyny that are more likely to be primarily under control of the sex hormones as opposed to those that are probably subject to other genetic and/or environmental influences. These results are discussed in terms of factors that might moderate androgyny–ability relationships. (15 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The effect of androgyny on the quality of psychotherapeutic relationships.

Tested the hypothesis that androgynous therapists would form more favorable psychotherapy relationships with their clients than masculine or feminine therapists. 52 psychology practicum dyads (therapists aged 26–40 yrs, clients aged 18–30 yrs) were examined in the context of in vivo psychotherapy sessions. The therapists and clients each completed the Bem Sex-Role Inventory—Revised, and clients also completed the Barrett-Lennard Relationship Inventory. Results indicate that androgynous therapists were judged to produce more favorable relationships, regardless of gender. It is suggested that this superior relationship with androgynous therapists may be attributed to their uniqueness in dealing with problem-solving and interpersonal situations and their ability to blend masculine and feminine orientations. They can be assertive, yet supportive; engage in activities both traditionally gender appropriate and non-sex-typed; demonstrate a greater array of personal behavior and emotionality; organize cognitive data in non-gender-related ways; and combine an open, naturalistic interviewing style with directiveness. (19 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Psychological androgyny and attitudes toward feminism.

Administered the Bem Sex-Role Inventory and Spence and Helm Attitudes toward Women Scale to 50 male and 50 female undergraduates. Only males with a preference for the feminine sex role differed from the other sex and level-of-androgyny groups, in that they exhibited traditional, conservative attitudes toward the rights and roles of women in contemporary society. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The relationship between androgyny and subjective indicators of emotional well-being.

176 college students were used to evaluate (a) the construct validity of the revised Short Bem Sex-Role Inventory (BSRI) with respect to measures of psychological well-being; (b) the validity of the concept of androgyny conceived as an intrinsically interactive concept, endowed as such with "surplus" meaning; and (c) the validity of the traditional assumption that it is the masculine male and feminine female who typify subjective well-being. Three hypotheses were tested concurrently by employing a hierarchical multiple regression analysis with interaction terms. Results across measures of well-being, stress reaction, and alienation taken from the Differential Personality Questionnaire, provide only partial support for S. L. Bem's (1974, 1979) scales as markers of subjective well-being, but no support for androgyny as a concept in its own right with predictive properties distinct from femininity and masculinity. The results of a factor analysis indicate that the Masculinity and Femininity scales of the BSRI occupy quite different locations in the space definied by certain higher-order personality dimensions. (31 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Psychological androgyny and stressful life events.

55 female and 22 male undergraduates completed the Bem Sex-Role Inventory, a stressful life-events (SLE) questionnaire, and some general questions on adjustment. Ss were also asked to rate the SLEs they had experienced in the prior 12 mo along the dimensions of desirability, amount of change, anticipation, control, and meaningfulness. As hypothesized, androgynous Ss rated their SLEs as less undesirable than other Ss, but this result held only for females. Undifferentiated Ss rated their SLEs as less meaningful than other Ss, and androgynous Ss rated themselves as happier than other Ss. Of the 5 examined dimensions, only meaningfulness was significantly related to happiness. Results may be related to the differential access to and/or use of social support systems by persons of different sex types. (22 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Autonomy through androgyny

The perception of contemporary nursing as being subordinate and subservient to medicine can be compared to the role of chloroform, which in its day served the purpose intended. However, like nursing, today's anesthetic agents require greater expertise to maximize their effectiveness. As nursing enters a new era in its struggle for autonomy, androgynous approaches promise increased independent thinking, action and self-esteem. Nurses possessing these qualities can address effectively, many of the challenges today's nursing practice poses.