Children's attributions for failure and success in different aspects of reading.

Investigated the attributions of 82 3rd graders and 82 6th graders for their success and failure in different reading situations with an extended set of causes (as a function of age and achievement differences). Ss were split into good and poor readers on the basis of a median split on the Reading Comprehension subtest of the California Test of Basic Skills. Ss reading achievement was then assessed in 2 reading situations (evaluation of reading performance and reading for meaning). Ss were asked to rate the degree to which each of 6 causes (ability, paying attention, studying, luck, task difficulty, and assistance from others) was responsible for their success or failure. Findings show that 6th graders' locus of control scores varied across situations, while 3rd graders' scores did not. Studying and paying attention were salient to Ss as causes. Age and achievement interacted, with low-achieving 3rd graders giving higher ratings to causes more clearly beyond their control than high-achieving 3rd graders, whereas low- and high-achieving 6th graders did not differ. (24 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Self-reinforcement: A continuum of external cues.

Investigated the role of external influences in children's self-regulatory behavior under stringent-demand (SD) and lenient-demand (LD) conditions. The abilities of the SD condition (in the form of stringent instructional sets and criterion setting), the LD condition (in which lenient instructions were provided), and a control condition to maintain 33 male and 29 female 3rd and 4th graders' performance on an arithmetic task were examined. Following 5 trials in which Ss self-administered prizes, all Ss in the SD group performed significantly better, during both the incentive and the extinction conditions, on all 3 dependent variables than did Ss in both the LD and control groups. Factors contributing to the differential performances of Ss under the LD and SD conditions are discussed in light of the self-reinforcement literature. (16 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Praise and censure as motivating variables in the motor behavior and learning of schizophrenics.

Hullian assumptions regarding drive level were utilized to predict the performance of acute and chronic schizophrenics on learning tasks of varying complexity. Ss were exposed to 3 conditions of reinforcement: censure, praise, and neutral (neither censure nor praise), and faced with simple and complex learning tasks. Acute schizophrenics responded differently from the chronic Ss to the conditions of reinforcement. The performance of the acute group was facilitated on the 2nd task by the experience of being told they were wrong on the 1st; this was not so with the chronic schizophrenics. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Reasoning and secondary reinforcement in 6–7-year-olds and 10–11-year-olds.

Conducted 2 experiments to investigate the 1st author's cognitive theory of secondary reinforcement effects, which predicts that Ss of a preoperational age (i.e., younger than 7 yrs) should not necessarily learn responses followed by a stimulus object previously instrumental in obtaining a reward, while Ss of a postoperational age should do so. Using 24 1st and 24 5th graders in 2 learning tasks, the prediction was confirmed. Furthermore, verbal responses indicated that the logical operations that presumably influenced the behavior of the older children actually did occur. In Exp II, using 28 2nd and 15 6th graders, the training task was simplified in order to try to facilitate logical reasoning, but the behavior of the younger Ss was not affected. It is concluded that secondary reinforcement of a stimulus–response associative type has yet to be demonstrated, and that secondary reinforcement of a cognitive type is heavily dependent on reasoning ability. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Depressive affect: A test of behavioral hypothesis.

Behavioral hypotheses about depression suggest that depression is a function of rate of reinforcement. Initial level of depression and locus of control were hypothesized to enhance this effect. 96 normal volunteer female Ss (62 nursing students and 34 high school students) were separated into groups on the basis of median splits on MMPI D and Rotter's Internal-External Control Scale scores, and were given either 80 or 20% positive reinforcement on a pseudosocial intelligence task. The lower rate of reinforcement resulted in more depressive behavior as measured by the Multiple Affect Adjective Check List, self-confidence ratings, and response latencies. Partial support was obtained for the enhancement of the reinforcement effect with initially more depressed Ss. No locus of control effects were found. Ss who were more depressed initially underestimated the amount of positive feedback they received. Results are discussed in terms of behavioral accounts of depression. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Internal-external control and the reduction of reinforcement value after failure.

Selected 22 internal and 17 external undergraduates on the basis of their scores on rotter's internal-external control scale. Ss were then administered 4 tasks described as measures of intelligence. Prior to performance, ss provided measures of reinforcement value for each of the tasks. All ss were failed on the 2 tasks they ranked as most important. As predicted, externals more than internals subsequently devalued those tasks on which they failed. No differences in stated expectancies were observed. Such differential reduction in reinforcement value is discussed in terms of defensiveness. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Decoding and comprehension skills in Turkish and English: Effects of the regularity of grapheme-phoneme correspondences.

Assesses decoding and comprehension skills for Turkish and American 1st and 3rd graders. 20 Ss in each group were tested on a pseudoword vocalization task and on a paragraph comprehension task. Latency and accuracy data indexed decoding proficiency and percentage correct comprehension skill. Turkish Ss were faster and more accurate on the decoding task than Americans at the 1st-grade level and equally accurate but faster at the 3rd-grade level. In 1st but not 3rd grade, Turkish Ss were superior to Americans on the comprehension task. Significant relationships between decoding and comprehension were found for all but American 3rd graders. Data suggest that languages with more regular letter–sound correspondences lead to faster acquisition of decoding skills. Findings also support a decreased relationship between decoding and comprehension once learners are beyond initial reading. (18 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Observational learning of quantity conservation and Piagetian generalization tasks.

20 1st graders who had scored 9 or less on a pretest of 8 Piagetian criterion tasks were divided into control and experimental groups. Experimental Ss underwent an observational learning phase in which a model correctly performed the 1st task used in the pretest, giving correct conservation judgments supported by justifications alternately based on identity, compensation, or reversibility considerations. All Ss were given the same 8 Piagetian tasks used in the pretest on immediate, 1-wk, and 3-mo delayed posttests. The experimental group generalized conservation to several tasks. One category of Ss behaved as rote learners and maintained conservation only for tasks closely similar to the modeled task and on immediate and 1-wk delayed posttest; a 2nd group of genuine conservers progressively generalized the conservation rule to more difficult tasks. The control group remained nonconserving throughout. Results are explained with reference to the Piagetian concept of sequential equilibration. The social experience of observation appeared to activate a cognitive restructuring of the Ss' mental operations. (18 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Fear of interpersonal evaluation as a determinant of alcohol consumption in male social drinkers.

Investigated the effects of fear of interpersonal evaluation on drinking behavior. 64 male undergraduates classified as heavy social drinkers were assigned to 1 of 8 conditions in a 2 * 2 * 2 factorial design. All Ss participated in a wine-tasting task designed as an unobtrusive measure of drinking behavior. Half of the Ss were led to believe that they would take part in a 2nd experiment in which they would be evaluated by a group of women, and half did not expect to be evaluated in the 2nd study. Ss were also classified as either internally or externally oriented based on their scores on the locus of control scale. For the 3rd factor, 1/2 of the Ss were given an opportunity to exercise some situational control prior to the impending evaluation, and 1/2 of them were deprived of this control. Results show that Ss expecting to be evaluated drank significantly more alcohol than low-fear controls, but the locus of control and situational control factors did not significantly affect drinking rates. (20 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Patterns in the infant's search for mother during brief separation.

Examined 36 9-mo-old infants' responses to the problem of searching for mother in a laboratory study. On a 1st trial, each S observed mother move out of sight through 1 of 2 open doorways; on a 2nd trial, experimental (E) group Ss observed their mother depart through the doorway not used before, whereas control (C) group Ss observed their mother depart through the same doorway used on Trial 1; and on a 3rd trial, C group Ss observed mothers leave through the doorway not used on the 1st 2 trials. On Trial 1, most infants successfully found mother by crawling to the doorway through which she had disappeared. However, on the trials in which the locus of disappearance was displaced to the other doorway, the majority of Ss failed to find her; that is, they perseverated in their locomotor search by returning to the doorway where she had previously been found. The door toward which the S looked the longest generally predicted the locus of subsequent locomotor search, though there was some evidence that this relation did not hold in the E group on Trial 2. The role of cognition in attachment responses and interpretations of perseverative search in standard object-concept tasks are discussed. (27 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Role of self-instruction and self-reinforcement in the modification of impulsivity.

From a sample of 140 2nd and 3rd graders, 48 Black Ss were identified as impulsive using the Matching Familiar Figures Test. These Ss were divided into 4 groups: (a) self-instruction (SI), (b) self-instruction/self-reinforcement (SI/SR), (c) attention control, and (d) assessment control. Results show that only SI/SR Ss had significantly reduced errors and significantly increased latencies. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Reaction-time behaviour as a function of internal-external control of reinforcement and control of test administration.

Tested 168 undergraduates in 2 self- vs. E-controlled RT experiments. Ss with internal vs. external control of reinforcement expectancies were compared across these conditions. Internal-external proved to be irrelevant to condition effects, whereas sex of S proved important. Female Ss were quicker in self-directed conditions in both regular and irregular RT procedures, while always slower than males in general. When instructions were embellished to facilitate performance for a 3rd sample, external Ss did show some improvement. Data indicate support for previous research that has emphasized responsiveness of external Ss to E's structuring of tasks. External Ss seemed more affected by motivating directions especially in the other-directed condition, at the shortest preparatory interval. No clear-cut support, however, was found for the hypothesized interaction between internal-external and self- vs. other-controlled conditions. (French summary) (19 ref.) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Internality, controllability, and the effectiveness of attributional interpretations in counseling.

Investigated an attributional approach to counseling in 2 studies. In Exp I, with 58 female and 24 male psychology students, the theoretical basis for the use of attributional interpretations was tested by giving Ss who had just received a negative social evaluation no information or information that stressed 1 of 4 types of causes: internal/controllable, internal/uncontrollable, external/controllable, and external/uncontrollable. Stressing internal/controllable causes produced more positive affective reactions and performance evaluations among internal locus of control respondents (Rotter's Internal–External Locus of Control Scale), whereas externals were more variable in their responses. Exp II (24 Ss) assessed the generalizability of these findings by administering causal counseling to Ss who identified themselves as interpersonally anxious. Utilizing a quasi-counseling design, Ss were exposed to 1 of 2 interpretations emphasizing internal control or coping. Results of Exp II confirm initial conclusions that the effectiveness of causal counseling may depend on the individual's locus of control. (36 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Stimulus condition self-selection by males in the interaction of locus of control and skill–chance situations.

Divided 218 undergraduates into 3 groups on the basis of their scores on Rotter's Internal–External Locus of Control Scale. Ss completed 2 achievement-type tests (the stimulus conditions), the 1st described as a test of skill, the 2nd as a test of chance. Ss then selected which type of test they would prefer for their 3rd test (stimulus condition self-selection). Thereafter, Ss had an opportunity to cheat by changing test answers. As predicted, Ss with an external locus of control were more likely to select a test of chance, whereas middles and internals were more likely to select a test of skill. Ss who selected a test of skill were more likely to cheat on a test of skill, whereas Ss who selected a test of chance were more likely to cheat on a test of chance. Results imply that behavior is both a function of self-selecting stimulus conditions and a function of personal factors. A distinction is drawn between the fundamental attributionist error (failure to consider stimulus condition self-selection) and the complementary fundamental attribution error. (31 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Depression and the perception of reinforcement.

Tested the prediction of the learned helplessness model of depression that depressed Ss tend to perceive reinforcement as more response-independent than do nondepressed Ss in skill tasks, but not in chance tasks. Changes in expectancies for success following reinforcement in chance and skill tasks were examined in 32 college students. The Rotter Internal-External Control Scale and Beck Depression Inventory were used to classify Ss into 4 groups: depressed high external, depressed low external, nondepressed high external, and nondepressed low external. The predictions were confirmed: nondepressed Ss showed greater expectancy changes than depressed Ss in skill, while the changes of depressed and nondepressed Ss were similar in chance. Externality had no significant effect on expectancy changes in chance or skill. Results indicate that depression entails a specific cognitive distortion of the consequences of skilled action. (27 ref.) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Affect and facilitative self-control: Influence of ecological setting, cognition, and social agent.

Three components of a situation--the ecological setting, the child's cognition, and the social agent--were imbued with positive, neutral, or negative affect to determine if they were functionally related to the continued maintenance of performance at a motor task by 108 1st and 2nd graders. Maintenance of performance is discussed in terms of facilitative self-control, and theoretical linkages to cognitive self-reinforcement and distractibility-frustrative nonreward theories are proposed. The most powerful effects occurred when the affect of the ecological setting was changed: Ss who experienced a happy room (happy pictures and faces) persisted longer than those in the sad or neutral room. Also, Ss who thought about happy things persisted longer than Ss who thought about sad or neutral things, but only when the E acted happy and recently had told the S a happy story. (20 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Effects of information about future interaction and peer's motivation on peer reward allocations.

Most equity studies dealing with children have defined inputs solely in terms of relative task performance. Yet in naturally occurring circumstances, children are presented with information about accomplishments in a context of other equally salient information. The present study determined what information 192 1st and 3rd graders weighted most heavily when formulating allocation decision rules. Ss allocated rewards to themselves and 2 unfamiliar players following a tower-building task. One player always constructed a shorter tower than the participant and the other player. Altruistic, aggressive, or no motivation information was attributed to the short-tower player. Half of the Ss anticipated future interaction with the players. It was hypothesized that both 1st and 3rd graders would utilize information concerning a peer's motivation in allocating rewards and that the prospect of future interaction would influence the use of the motivation information. Results corroborate the 1st hypothesis and indicate that prospect of future interaction information masked the effects of a peer's motivation for 3rd graders. First graders used this information only when no motivation information was given. (33 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

An index of the physical effort required in human task performance.

Conducted 2 studies to examine the relationship between ratings of perceived physical effort required in human task performance and associated metabolic expenditure. In each study, tasks whose metabolic performance costs were known from the physical work assessment literature were rated on the effort required to complete the task by Ss who did not know the metabolic information. Results of the 1st study with 26 personnel specialists reveal that Ss could discriminate among tasks of known metabolic differences and that their ratings of the effort required in task performance were highly correlated with actual metabolic costs. The 2nd study replicated the procedures and results of the 1st study, using 26 male and 28 female untrained observers and examined sex differences in ratings of perceived effort. No rating sex differences were found beyond the level of chance. Results are discussed in terms of the development of an assessment index of the physical effort required in task performance. (23 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Depression and self-reinforcement in a public and private setting.

Depressed undergraduates (determined by the Beck Depression Inventory), nondepressed undergraduates, and nondepressed undergraduates pretreated with an insolvable-problems (failure) manipulation were compared on self-reinforcement during a 22-trial skill task. Success rate was controlled, all Ss receiving either an initially high rate of success followed by a low one or an initially low rate of success followed by a high one. Ss responded in either a public (experimenter present) or a private (unobserved and anonymous) condition. Measures of self-reinforcement revealed differences among the groups' responses across the public–private conditions, suggesting greater support for predictions derived from an interpersonal view of depression than for predictions from current cognitive theories of depression. Moreover, it was found that within the high–low sequence, depressed-private Ss reinforced themselves at a significantly higher level than nondepressed-private Ss, a finding at odds with predictions derived from cognitive theories. (31 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Complex nature of the sense of fairness: Internal standards and social comparison as bases for reward evaluations.

Hypothesized that internal standards (whether based on an established sense of "own equity" or experimentally induced), as well as social comparison, can influence pay evaluations. In Study 1, 58 undergraduates completed 4 tasks for pay. Payment was the same (low, medium, or high) for the 1st 3 tasks; for the 4th, Ss received the same or more or less money. Both induced and established internal standards were found to affect Ss' perceptions of the fairness of their own pay. In Study 2, 115 Ss were seated in pairs during their task so that they could observe how much the other S was paid. Both an established internal standard and social comparison affected Ss' fairness judgments. Results also indicate that absolute amount of pay had a greater impact on evaluations of satisfaction than on fairness judgments. Results are discussed in terms of the complex bases of reward evaluation. (15 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)