A game theoretic framework for stochastic multipath routing in self-organized MANETs

In this paper we propose a game theoretic framework for stochastic multipath routing in mobile ad hoc networks (MANETs). In a MANET, intelligent and adaptive attackers may try to hijack, jam or intercept data packets traveling from source to destination. In our proposed game, at each stage the source node keeps track of the available multiple paths, the residual bandwidth of the paths and the strategy of the attackers from the information gathered during the previous stage. Based on these observations, the source node selects a path for data communication and switching strategy among the multiple established paths between the source node and the destination node. Accordingly, it selects an optimal routing strategy to send data packets to the destination at each stage of the game. Using minimax-Q learning, the selected routing strategy maximizes the expected sum of per stage discounted payoff, which is the utilization of residual bandwidth between a source–destination pair along with the probability that the path is safe. Performance analysis and numerical results show that our proposed scheme achieves significant performance gains in terms of residual bandwidth utilization, average end-to-end delay, packet delivery ratio, routing overhead and security.     

无线Ad Hoc网络中增强安全性的多路径路由算法

针对无线ad hoc网络的数据安全性问题,提出了一种增强安全性的多路径路由算法．该算法通过目标节点发送检测数据包的机制,动态维护多路径路由信息的有效性．源节点则根据收到检测包的信息自适应地更新当前的最优传输路径,充分利用路由寻找及维护过程中的信息建立多条可用路径,提供最优的路由方案,并增强了无线ad hoc网络数据传输的安全性．仿真结果表明此算法的数据传输安全性达到了合理的水平．     

MANET节点不相关的多路路由算法

针对不相关路由路径之闯可能存在特定关键节点问题,提出一种特定节点不相关多路路由算法,通过寻找关键节点,使数据报文经单路径到达关键节点的上一跳节点后,向多条不相关路径的节点进行转发,使数据报文可以同时在多条节点不相关的路径上路由到达目的节点。仿真实验结果表明,如果存在关键节点,该算法能够提高分组投递率、降低端到端延迟;如果不存在关键节点,该算法的性能与节点不相关算法相当。     

中心计算的无线传感器网络2-不相交路径路由算法

在多路径路由(multipath routing, MPR)算法中,不相交多路径路由(disjoint multipath routing, DMPR)算法具有更高的可靠性和容错性.DMPR算法面临的主要挑战有2点：不相交路径的选优问题和数据包在不相交路径上的传输问题.针对某些工业应用(例如矿井环境监测)中网络拓扑比较稳定,sink节点运算和存储能力较强等特点,提出了一种中心计算的2-不相交路径路由算法——CCDMPR算法.算法利用全网信息计算出从源节点到sink节点的近似最优2-节点(链路)不相交路径,然后生成仅包含主父交节点,辅父节点对和路径比特序列的微路由表并下传到每个节点;针对中心计算方式对链路状态变化的反应迟缓问题,采用了一种中心调度的自适应机制提高路径维护的灵活性.实验结果证明,CCDMPR算法能够显著减小平均路径长度,节省网络整体能量,并能提高数据传输的可靠性.     

Networks on which hot-potato routing does not livelock

Summary. Hot-potato routing is a form of synchronous routing which makes no use of buffers at intermediate nodes. Packets must move at every time step, until they reach their destination. If contention prevents a packet from taking its preferred outgoing edge, it is deflected on a different edge. Two simple design principles for hot potato routing algorithms are minimum advance, that advances at least one packet towards its destination from every nonempty node (and possibly deflects all other packets), and maximum advance, that advances the maximum possible number of packets. Livelock is a situation in which packets keep moving indefinitely in the network without any packet ever reaching its destination. It is known that even maximum advance algorithms might livelock on some networks. We show that minimum advance algorithms never livelock on tree networks, and that maximum advance algorithms never livelock on triangulated networks. Received: March 1999 / Accepted: August 1999     

A Lower Bound for Nearly Minimal Adaptive and Hot Potato Algorithms

Recently, Chinn et al. [10] presented lower bounds for store-and-forward permutation routing algorithms on the n \times n mesh with bounded buffer size and where a packet must take a shortest (or minimal ) path to its destination. We extend their analysis to algorithms that are nearly minimal. We also apply this technique to the domain of hot potato algorithms, where there is no storage of packets and the shortest path to a destination is not assumed (and is in general impossible). We show that ``natural' variants and ``improvements' of several algorithms in the literature perform poorly in the worst case. As a result, we identify algorithmic features that are undesirable for worst-case hot potato permutation routing. Recent works in hot potato routing have tried to define simple and greedy classes of algorithms. We show that when an algorithm is too simple and too greedy, its performance in routing permutations is poor in the worst case. Specifically, the technique of [10] is also applicable to algorithms that do not necessarily send packets in minimal or even nearly minimal paths: it may be enough that they naively attempt to do so when possible. In particular, our results show that a certain class of greedy algorithms that was suggested recently by Ben-Dor et al. [6] contains algorithms that have poor performance in routing worst-case permutations. Received August 24, 1995; revised May 27, 1997.     

Layered routing in irregular networks

Freedom from deadlock is a key issue in cut-through, wormhole, and store and forward networks, and such freedom is usually obtained through careful design of the routing algorithm. Most existing deadlock-free routing methods for irregular topologies do, however, impose severe limitations on the available routing paths. We present a method called layered routing, which gives rise to a series of routing algorithms, some of which perform considerably better than previous ones. Our method groups virtual channels into network layers and to each layer it assigns a limited set of source/destination address pairs. This separation of traffic yields a significant increase in routing efficiency. We show how the method can be used to improve the performance of irregular networks, both through load balancing and by guaranteeing shortest-path routing. The method is simple to implement, and its application does not require any features in the switches other than the existence of a modest number of virtual channels. The performance of the approach is evaluated through extensive experiments within three classes of technologies. These experiments reveal a need for virtual channels as well as an improvement in throughput for each technology class.     

基于虚拟拓扑的多级可信传输体系及路由计算

路由器及转发路径的安全可信一直备受关注.不同厂商的网络设备或处于不同管理环境中的同一款网络设备,都具有不同的安全可信度.人们期望为不同安全需求的流量提供相应可信级别的转发路径,实现网络数据的可信传输.设计了多级可信传输机制(credible transmission with multiple levels, CETML),提出了基本的可信管理策略.所有路由节点和IP前缀都被指定可信级别,网络流量也基于源、目的IP被设置可信级别.CETML为不同可信级别的传输网络构建虚拟拓扑,确保网络中的报文必须通过不小于其可信级别的路由器进行转发.路由器转发项要包含多个下一跳信息,会引入极少量的存储开销.面向SDN网络环境,分析多级虚拟拓扑的关联,基于Floyd算法思想设计了可依次迭代的多关联拓扑路由计算方法,计算时间相对典型的路由算法显著降低.     

多约束服务质量路由中的路径压缩算法

多约束服务质量路由是一种能够支持灵活的服务质量控制的有效方案.然而在多约束的环境下,从一个源节点到一个目的节点可能存在多条路径,因而必须相应地增大路由表容量.由于当前路由表的规模已相当庞大,尤其是在高速核心网中,因此,为了在QoS路由表中存储更少的路径信息,需要首先进行路径压缩.文章以解决最优路径压缩问题(OPR)为目标,力图在尽量减小路由表存储规模的同时使路由成功率最大化.为了实现这个目标,文中提出了两个基于贡献区域的算法:增量贡献算法和改进的增量贡献算法.这两个算法从一个大的多约束路径集合中依次计算出具有最大贡献区域的积的路径,最后得到一个小的结果路径集合.大量模拟实验表明,这两个算法能够以较低的运算复杂度获得令人满意的路由成功率.     

多跳无线网络中基于网络编码的多路径路由

提出了一种基于网络编码的多路径路由机制CAMP(network coding-aware multi-path routing).该机制能够根据路径的可靠性和编码机会,动态地在多条路径上进行数据包的传输.CAMP的路由发现机制能够向源节点返回多条可能的路径以及各条路径的每条边上的ETX(expected transmission count).与以往的多路径路由机制不同, CAMP可以通过转换它的传输路径来动态地创造而非仅仅等待编码机会.利用这一独特的路由机制,CAMP可以让多条路径分摊网络流量负载,并且最大化路径转换收益,从而改进网络的吞吐量.实验结果表明,在无线网络的数据传输过程中,CAMP能够取得比其他路由机制高得多的网络吞吐量.     

Enforcing in-order packet delivery in system area networks with adaptive routing

Adaptive routing, which dynamically selects the route of packets, has been widely studied for interconnection networks in massively parallel computers and system area networks. Although adaptive routing has the advantage of providing high bandwidth, it may deliver packets out-of-order, which some message passing libraries do not accept. In this paper, we propose two mechanisms called (1) FIFO transmission and (2) couple limitation to guarantee in-order packet delivery in adaptive routing. Both of them limit packet injection at source hosts. The FIFO transmission completely avoids packet sorting at destination hosts, while the couple limitation uses a few buffers to sort packets at destination hosts. Evaluation results show that the FIFO transmission and the couple limitation achieve a similar throughput to that of a method equipped with huge (infinite) buffers enough to store all out-of-order packets at destination hosts under both synthetic traffic and NAS Parallel Benchmarks.     

Local heuristic for the refinement of multi-path routing in wireless mesh networks

We consider wireless mesh networks and the problem of routing end-to-end traffic over multiple paths for the same origin–destination pair with minimal interference. We introduce a heuristic for path determination with two distinguishing characteristics. First, it works by refining an extant set of paths, determined previously by a single- or multi-path routing algorithm. Second, it is totally local, in the sense that it can be run by each of the origins on information that is available no farther than the node’s immediate neighborhood. We have conducted extensive computational experiments with the new heuristic, using AODV and OLSR, as well as their multi-path variants, as underlying routing methods. For two different CSMA settings (as implemented by 802.11) and one TDMA setting running a path-oriented link scheduling algorithm, we have demonstrated that the new heuristic is capable of improving the average throughput network-wide. When working from the paths generated by the multi-path routing algorithms, the heuristic is also capable to provide a more evenly distributed traffic pattern.     

Multi constrained network feature approximation based secure routing for improved quality of service in mobile ad-hoc network

The mobile ad-hoc network is well studied on the routing issues, and the security constraints around achieving higher quality of service (QoS) values are well analyzed. The main task is to establish the path to the target with reliable intermediate nodes based on quality parameters because of the lack of node mobility and central management. In a multi-constrained QoS issuance, more than the QoS requirements must be satisfied at the end of the application. There are several secure routing protocols available to improve the QoS of Manet by routing packets securely. However, they do not meet the performance requirements. To solve this problem, and efficient Multi-Constrained Network Feature Approximation (MCNFA) technique is proposed based on safe routing. The method first determines the list of paths between source and destination. According to that, the method approximates the congestion, latency, and hop count values for each route. According to the value obtained in approximation of various parameters, the legitimate weight is computed for all the routes towards the destination. According to the value of the legitimate weight, a single route is selected to perform data transmission. The MCNFA approach improves the routing performance and increases the throughput ratio and other QoS factors. The performance of the proposed method will be assessed using NS2 simulation. The results show that the proposed scheme can maintain a longer network lifecycle in tight scenarios suitable for delay-tolerant networking. The performance is compared with energy recognition and MCNFA technique-based energy-saving routing protocols in various QoS scenarios.     

Congestion Avoidance Based on Lightweight Buffer Management in Sensor Networks

A wireless sensor network is constrained by computation capability, memory space, communication bandwidth, and above all, energy supply. When a critical event triggers a surge of data generated by the sensors, congestion may occur as data packets converge toward a sink. Congestion causes energy waste, throughput reduction, and information loss. However, the important problem of congestion avoidance in sensor networks is largely open. This paper proposes a congestion-avoidance scheme based on light-weight buffer management. We describe simple yet effective approaches that prevent data packets from overflowing the buffer space of the intermediate sensors. These approaches automatically adapt the sensors' forwarding rates to nearly optimal without causing congestion. We discuss how to implement buffer-based congestion avoidance with different MAC protocols. In particular, for CSMA with implicit ACK, our 1/k{hbox{-}}{rm{buffer}} solution prevents hidden terminals from causing congestion. We demonstrate how to maintain near-optimal throughput with a small buffer at each sensor and how to achieve congestion-free load balancing when there are multiple routing paths toward multiple sinks.     

All-to-all disjoint multipath routing using cycle embedding

In this paper, we evaluate the performance of disjoint multipath routing approaches for all-to-all routing in packet-switched networks with respect to packet overhead, path length, and routing table size. We develop a novel approach based on cycle embedding to obtain two node-disjoint paths between all source–destination pairs with reduced number of routing table entries maintained at a node (hence the reduced lookup time), small average path length, and less packet overhead. We study the trade-off between the number of routing table entries maintained at a node and the average length of the two disjoint paths by: (a) formulating the cycle-embedding problem as an integer linear program; and (b) developing a heuristic. We show that the number of routing table entries at a node may be reduced to at most two per destination using cycle-embedding approach if the average length of the disjoint paths are allowed to exceed the minimum by 25%.     

Disjoint path properties of the data manipulator network family

A critical component of any parallel processing system is the interconnection network that provides communications among the system's processors and memories. The data manipulator (gamma) network family is an important class of multistage interconnection networks that is being studied by various researchers. One interesting property of the data manipulator network family is the existence of multiple paths through the network for most source/ destination pairs. The condition that must be present to have disjoint paths through the network for a given source/ destination pair is shown, where disjoint paths are multiple paths with no links in common. It is derived that the maximum number of disjoint paths for any source/destination pair is two and a method for finding the routing tags that specify these paths is given. For source/destination pairs that have disjoint paths, a single fault cannot prevent communication between that source/ destination pair. The effect of a fault in a given stage of the network on the number of source/destination pairs that can be connected is also discussed. All results are proven mathematically.     

Algorithms for multicast connection under multi-path routing model

Given a source node and a set of destination nodes in a network, multicast routing problem is usually treated as Steiner tree problem. Unlike this well-known tree based routing model, multicast routing under multi-path model is to find a set of paths rooted at the source node such that in each path at most a fixed number of destination nodes can be designated to receive the data and every destination node must be designated in a path to receive the data. The cost of routing is the total costs of paths found. In this paper we study how to construct a multicast routing of minimal cost under multi-path model. We propose two approximation algorithms for this NP-complete problem with guaranteed performance ratios.     

The impact of local policies on the quality of packet routing in paths,trees, and rings

We consider the packet routing problem in store-and-forward networks whose topologies are either paths, trees, or rings. We are interested by the quality of the solution produced, with respect to a global optimal solution, if each link uses a (fixed) local policy to schedule the packets which go through it. The quality of the derived solutions is measured using the worst case analysis for two global optimality criteria, namely the maximum arrival date of a packet at its destination (or makespan) and the average arrival date of the packets at their destinations. We consider the setting where n packets, each one having a size (or length) and a destination, are released from the same source. In the case of rings, there exist two paths between the source and a destination. Each packet is owned by a user which chooses a path to its destination. We assume that users are rational: knowing the local policy used by the links and the state of the network, a user chooses the path which minimizes the arrival date of its packet at its destination. We are then interested by the quality of the Nash equilibria obtained.     

An Integer Programming Algorithm for Routing Optimization in IP Networks

Most data networks nowadays use shortest path protocols to route the traffic. Given administrative routing lengths for the links of the network, all data packets are sent along shortest paths with respect to these lengths from their source to their destination.     

Convergence Routing under Bursty Traffic: Instability and an AIMD Controller

Routing in all optical networks is an important issue. Deflection routing provides a high throughput but suffers from unbounded transportation time. Convergence routing provides ending guarantee to packets entering the network. We focus on the Eulerian routing technique (convergence routing based on an Eulerian directed cycle), and several improvements which increase the throughput. In this paper, we show that these routing algorithms are very unstable when the traffic occurs by bursts. Thus an admission control is needed to maintain a high throughput.