Improving Carob Flour Performance for Making Gluten-Free Breads by Particle Size Fractionation and Jet Milling

Many different raw materials have been proposed for producing nutritious gluten-free breads, but rarely, there is a parallel analysis of the effect of physical treatment on those ingredients. The aim of this study was to incorporate carob flour fractions of varying particle size on rice gluten-free breads prepared with carob/rice (15:85) flour blends. Carob flour particle size was controlled by fractionation or jet milling application. Quality features of gluten-free breads containing carob flour and commercially available gluten-free breads were compared. Carob flour addition led to breads with improved colour parameters, crumb structure, retarded firming and lower moisture loss compared to rice bread. Further improvement in specific volume, crumb hardness, protein and ash content and estimated glycaemic index (eGI) could be obtained by a careful selection of the particle size distribution of the carob flour. Carob breads prepared either with the coarsest or the finest fraction prepared using jet milling led to end products with the highest specific volume (≈2.2 g/cm³) and the lowest crumb hardness (≈5.5 N), although they had lower specific volume and harder crumbs than breads from commercial blends (≈3–4 g/cm³, 0.6–3.8 N). Nevertheless, rice-based bread made with the finest carob flour was superior considering its slower firming, protein content and lower eGI. The incorporation of carob flour obtained by jet milling in rice-based gluten-free breads led to end products with quality characteristics and sensory acceptance resembling commercial breads and high nutritional value.     

Influence of additives on dough rheology and quality of <Emphasis Type="Italic">Thepla</Emphasis>: an Indian unleavened flatbread

Thepla is Indian unleavened flatbread made from whole-wheat flour with added spices and vegetables. In the present study, effect of addition of various emulsifiers such as sodium stearoyl-2-lactylate (SSL), di acetyl tartaric acid ester of monoglyceride (DATEM) and glycerol mono-stearate (GMS) were studied. Further hydrocolloids (guar gum, carrageenan) and modified polysaccharides [hydroxypropyl methylcellulose (HPMC) and carboxymethyl cellulose] were added at the concentration ranging from 0.25 to 1 % on the basis of whole wheat flour to prepared the doughs. These thepla doughs were analyzed for rheology and theplas were analyzed for tear force. Additives helped in improvement of dough and thepla quality. Guar gum increased dough stickiness and strength to the highest (31.12 and 1.76 g respectively). Also, guar gum decreased tear force value of thepla to 208.4 g. Tear force was found to be increasing with the duration of storage. Highest improvement in thepla dough and quality was obtained by the addition of guar gum at 0.75 % which retained the softest texture of thepla.     

Isolation of lactic acid bacteria starters from <Emphasis Type="Italic">Jeung</Emphasis>-<Emphasis Type="Italic">pyun</Emphasis> for sourdough fermentation

Lactic acid bacteria (LAB) are key for the fermentation of sourdoughs to improve the quality and nutritive value of bread. The aim of this study was to isolate the LAB starter for sourdough fermentation from Jeung-pyun, a Korean traditional rice cake. Among the twenty two LAB screened, five isolates were selected based on exo-polysaccharide production. Among them, three isolates showed cell growth greater than 8.5 Log CFU/g, maximum increase in the volume of dough, and dextran concentration up to 0.16%. During the sourdough fermentation, pH and total titratable acidity (TTA) were changed, as the three isolates synthesized lactic acid and acetic acid with fermentation quotients less than 2.0. They were identified as Leuconostoc lactis EFEL005, Lactobacillus brevis EFEL004, and Le. citreum EFEL006. They displayed good fermentation properties (growth, dextran production, pH, and TTA) in dough and they are regarded as potential starters to be used in sourdough fermentation.     

Inactivation of Endogenous Rice Flour β-Glucanase by Microwave Radiation and Impact on Physico-chemical Properties of the Treated Flour

The apparent reduction of β-glucan (BG) molecular weight in rice-based gluten-free (GF) breads fortified with cereal BG concentrates reveals the presence of β-glucanase activity in rice flour. Inactivation of endogenous β-glucanase in rice flour thus seems to be a necessary step when developing GF breads enriched with BG of high molecular weight. The aim of this work was to study the thermal inactivation of endogenous β-glucanase in rice flour by means of microwave (MW) processing; rice flours preconditioned at four different moisture levels (13, 16, 19, 25 %) were treated by MW radiation at 900 W and five MW treatment times (ranging from 40 s to 8 min, applied stepwise at 20-s intervals). The effects of microwaves on starch crystallinity, pasting, and thermal properties of MW-treated rice flours were also explored. The β-glucanase activity in rice flours was assessed by the rate of decrease in specific viscosity of a dilute solution of a purified β-glucan preparation, upon addition of flour extracts. MW proved to be a useful alternative for thermal inactivation of endogenous β-glucanase in rice flours when applied to moistened samples. The inactivation process followed a first-order kinetic response and the apparent rate constant of thermal inactivation increased exponentially with the moisture content of the flour, M, according to the equation 0.0146·exp (0.212·M) (R ²?=?0.97). The MW time required for complete β-glucanase inactivation was only 4 min when the initial flour moisture increased to 25 %. Following MW treatment, the starch crystallinity was unaffected (p?>?0.05) and the side effects of the treatment on flour pasting and thermal properties were rather negligible.     

LC-ESI-MS/MS Analysis and Extraction Method of Phenolic Acids from Gluten-Free Precooked Buckwheat Pasta

In many countries, common buckwheat (Fagopyrum esculentum Möench) has been cultivated for its nutritive value as food ingredient. This plant is a rich source of vitamins and exogenic amino acids. Many of the health-promoting effects of F. esculentum have been attributed to a large amount of phenolic compounds. Presented in this paper, precooked buckwheat pasta, produced by extrusion cooking, is a gluten-free product without any technological additives. Moreover, it contains natural polyphenolic antioxidants and therefore could be classified as convenience food. The phenolic acid compositions of precooked buckwheat pasta were as follows: gallic, protocatechuic, gentisic, 4-OH-benzoic, vanillic, trans-caffeic, cis-caffeic, trans-p-coumaric, cis-p-coumaric, trans-ferulic, cis-ferulic, and salicylic. A very important step of sample pretreatment before quantitative analysis is the choice of extraction conditions. Therefore, in this study, before quantitative analysis (liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry, LC-ESI-MS/MS), optimization of ultrasound-assisted extraction (UAE) of phenolic acids from precooked buckwheat pasta was performed. The most effective conditions for the isolation of phenolic acids from precooked buckwheat pasta with the use of UAE were as follows: 80 % aqueous ethanol, 60 °C, ultrasound frequency 20 kHz, power 100 W, and time 40 min.     

The Effect of Hybrid Carrageenan on the Thermo-rheological Properties of Gluten-Free Flour Doughs Using a Modified Kneading Protocol

Thermo-rheological behaviour of chestnut flour doughs supplemented with kappa/iota-hybrid carrageenan (HC) (up to 2.0%, flour basis (f.b.)) and sodium chloride (1.8%, f.b.) was determined at both target (C1) and final (C5) mixing peaks. For this purpose, small amplitude oscillatory shear (0.01 to 100 Hz), creep–recovery (loading of 50 Pa for 60 s, 30 °C), temperature sweeps (from 30 up to 180 °C) and heating/cooling cycles (between 30 and 60 °C) were conducted on a controlled stress rheometer. Previously, the thermal-mixing behaviour at proposed mixing temperature (50 °C) was conducted on Mixolab® apparatus. Results showed that the dough stability (from 2.2 to 5.8 min) in mixing stage and starch heat resistance to dough processing were significantly improved at proposed mixing temperature, even in the absence of HC. No statistical differences in rheological properties were observed for doughs evaluated in C1; however, those analysed in C5 were significantly modified in the presence of HC, mainly in terms of viscous behaviour (from 52.1 × 10⁶ to 39.1 × 10⁶ Pa s). Creep–recovery data sets, successfully fitted using Burgers model, revealed that the elasticity (J _r/J _max from 73.3 to 87.6%) of doughs analysed in C5 improved with HC addition. Thermal tests showed that the starch transitions were significantly promoted and stabilized with HC addition.     

Grape Processing by High Hydrostatic Pressure: Effect on Use of Non-<Emphasis Type="Italic">Saccharomyces</Emphasis> in Must Fermentation

Vitis vinifera (variety Tempranillo) grapes were pressurized at 400 MPa by high hydrostatic pressure for 10 min and the effect on wild microbial populations, phenol extraction and wine composition was monitored. After treatment, the grapes were inoculated and fermented with Saccharomyces cerevisiae and several non-Saccharomyces yeasts: Schizosaccharomyces pombe, Torulaspora delbrueckii, Metschnikowia pulcherrima and Lachancea thermotolerans. S. pombe was used as sole fermentative yeast, but T. delbrueckii, M. pulcherrima and L. thermotolerans were used in sequential cultures with S. cerevisiae to completely ferment the sugars. The HHP treatment reduces strongly or eliminates wild microorganisms, especially yeasts, facilitating the growth and development of non-Saccharomyces yeasts. Thus, it helps to get either a better expression of enzymatic activities or metabolites production of non-Saccharomyces affecting wine quality.     

Development and characterization of reconstituted hydrogel from <Emphasis Type="Italic">Aloe vera</Emphasis> (<Emphasis Type="Italic">Aloe barbadensis</Emphasis> Miller) powder

Structural and rheological characterization of reconstituted hydrogels developed from A. vera non-fibrous alcohol insoluble residue (NFAIR) powder using different methods [viz., shaking (S), heating-shaking (HS), and heating (H)] and concentrations (viz., 0.2–1.6 %, w/v) was carried out. Functional group distribution by FTIR spectroscopy and Congo red (CR) method revealed the presence of acetylated acemannan in A. vera powder. Dynamic oscillation studies of A. vera (NFAIR) fluids at all concentrations of 0.2–1.6 %, w/v, showed gel strength in the order of H > HS > S method. However, in H method, increase in concentration from 0.2 to 1.6 %, w/v showed the conformational transition from semi-diluted solution to weak gel nature. Rheological models described the effect of heating temperatures (HT); 30–90 °C, and times (Ht); 15–60 min on viscoelastic behavior in reconstituted A. vera fluids. The reconstituted A. vera hydrogel prepared with a concentration of 1.6 %, w/v using 50 °C (HT) and 30 min (Ht) condition showed a good agreement with the Power law (storage modulus, G′) and Weak gel model (complex modulus, G*) fitted data (R² > 0.94) resulting higher viscoelastic moduli intercepts; G′₀ (71.5 Pa s ^n′), G″₀ (33.5 Pa s ^n″), lower slopes; n′ (0.22), n″ (0.06), higher network strength (A _F , 121.3 Pa s^1/z ) and number of network (z, 5.3) values. The obtained results suggested that heating at 50 °C/30 min can develop aqueous weak gel networks of A. vera with enhanced gel strength which may be utilized as a novel gelling agent for wide variety of targeted applications in food and pharmaceutical sectors.     

Smart NMR Method of Measurement of Moisture Content of Vegetables During Microwave Vacuum Drying

Microwave drying is usually combined with vacuum environment in conjunction with hot air flow to draw the moisture rapidly. The moisture content of the vegetables undergoing drying is hard to measure online. This research designed a microwave vacuum drying (MVD)-low-field nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) smart device and investigated the feasibility of NMR method for online measurement of state of moisture during MVD. The relation between the signal amplitude (A ₂) and the true moisture content (M ₁) of six kinds of vegetables (mushroom, carrot, potato, lotus, edamame, vegetable corn) was fitted to estimate if NMR can measure the M ₁ of vegetables directly. Results showed that A ₂ and M ₁ of different fresh vegetables had no single empirical mathematical model to fit. However, for each kind of these vegetables, the A ₂ and corresponding M ₁ in different MVD stages showed a significant linear relationship. The predicted moisture content (M ₂) of mushroom: M ₂ = 5.25351 × 10^?4 A ₂ ? 0.34042, R = 0.996; carrot: M ₂ = 5.78756 × 10^?4 A ₂ ? 0.14108, R = 0.998; potato: M ₂ = 3.10019 × 10^?4 A ₂ ? 0.10612, R = 0.991; lotus: M ₂ = 2.32415 × 10^?4 A ₂ ? 0.01573, R = 0.998; edamame: M ₂ = 3.13310 × 10^?4 A ₂ ? 0.4198, R = 0.996; vegetable corn: M ₂ = 1.69461 × 10^?4 A ₂ ? 0.09063, R = 0.995. The linear models between M ₂ and A ₂ were able to estimate the end point (M ₁ < 8%) of MVD with a high accuracy (P > 0.950).     

Effects of organic acid pretreatment on microstructure,functional and thermal properties of unripe banana flour

Starch availability has been implicated in unripe matured banana (Musa species), which when processed yields flour suitable for application in low gluten and composite wheat formulations. Unripe Musa species: Williams, Luvhele, Mabonde and Muomva-red obtained from fruit bunch were pretreated with ascorbic, citric and lactic acids, processed into 50 g of flour and characterised for their functional and thermal properties. Scanning electron microscope of unripe banana flour (UBF) showed varying micrographs of flour, with polygonal for Luvhele, oval for Mabonde, elongated for Muomva-red and between polygonal and spherical for Williams. The bulk density of UBF samples was within the range of 0.66–0.84 g/mL for all organic acid pretreatment while citric acid pretreated UBF had the least browning index. Significant difference (p < 0.05) was recorded in swelling power with no significant difference in water solubility index except for Mabonde UBF. Thermal properties showed single endothermic transition for all UBF samples at various pretreatment concentration. The onset temperature (To) of UBF ranges from 49.82 to 65.59 °C, peak temperature (Tp) from 60.11 to 76.71 °C, conclusion temperature (Tc) from 70.36 to 94.16 °C and enthalpy of gelatinization (ΔH) from 2.61 to 32.24 J/g. Short amylopectin chains present in starch of UBF was attributed to low To, Tp, Tc and ΔH values recorded for Mabonde cultivar, while the contribution of heat-moisture treatment rather than organic acid pretreatment of UBF samples was attributed to different gelatinization and transition temperatures recorded for all cultivars examined.     

Dynamic changes of bacterial communities and nitrite character during northeastern Chinese sauerkraut fermentation

Northeastern Chinese sauerkraut is a well-known traditional fermented vegetable in China. Incomplete identification of the microorganisms’ (bacteria in spontaneous fermentation) diversity and accumulation of nitrite make it difficult to normalize the fermentation process and product qualities of northeastern Chinese sauerkraut. Conventional culturing and polymerase chain reaction-denaturing gradient gel electrophoresis methods were combined to describe microbial structure and diversity. Lactobacillus, Leuconostoc, Enterobacter, Accumulibacter, Thermotoga, Pseudomonas, Clostridium, Rahnella and Citrobacter were predominant microorganisms in different fermentation periods. The pH value and nitrite concentration presented a certain relevance to the amount of lactic acid bacteria. Lactobacillus and Leuconostoc had the ability to decrease nitrite by inhibiting nitrate-reducing bacteria such as Enterobacter. Therefore, Northeastern Chinese sauerkraut should not be eaten until 4 weeks of fermentation for the safety and quality of fermented foods. Northeastern Chinese sauerkraut is rich in lactic acid bacteria, which demonstrate its ability as an excellent probiotic for applications in functional foods.     

Predicting the cookie quality of flours by using Mixolab<Superscript>®</Superscript>

The objective of this study was to determine the possibility of using Mixolab^® to predict the cookie baking quality of different wheat flours. Mixolab data was also compared with various flour quality characteristics. There were significant correlations (P < 0.001) between Mixolab stability and some of the flour quality characteristics (protein and wet gluten contents, Zeleny sedimentation value). Alveoconsistograph T value was negatively correlated with Mixolab C3, C4 and C5 values. The cookie diameter gave highly significant correlations with protein content, Zeleny sedimentation value and damaged starch content. Mixolab C3 and C4 values were highly correlated (P < 0.001) with both cookie diameter and spread ratio. A significant correlation coefficient (r = 0.556) was determined between the cookie diameter and C1–C2 value which is an indication of protein quality. The dependence of cookie diameter and spread ratio on Mixolab C3 value, damaged starch content and Zeleny sedimentation value were analyzed with multiple regression analysis and high multiple correlation coefficients were found between these parameters (r = 0.948 and 0.861, respectively).     

Enterohemorrhagic <Emphasis Type="Italic">Escherichia coli</Emphasis> (EHEC) in water from karst springs: detection with real-time PCR and isolation of strains

Within 2 months, two water sources in a karst area in Switzerland were sampled 9 times each, and analyzed by real-time PCR for 6 EHEC O-types, Shiga-like-toxin (stx1 and stx2) and intimin (eae) genes. With the exception of O111, 5 O-types were recorded regularly and at high frequencies (O26: 33.3 %; O157: 33.3 %; O104: 66.6 %; O103: 72.2 %; O145: 94.4 %). Genes for Shiga-like-toxins and intimin were almost omnipresent (stx1: 77.8 %; stx2: 83.3 %; eae: 77.8 %). Strain isolation was undertaken for O-groups 26, 103, 104, 145 and 157. Sample selection for strain isolation was based on Cq-values for the O-groups and stx1, stx2 and eae. From selected samples, frozen enrichment cultures were cultivated on EHLY-agar and 50 typical colonies screened for the O-type and genes encoding for stx1, stx2 and eae. With this approach, only one virulent EHEC-strain could be isolated (Escherichia coli O103, stx1 +; stx2 ?; eae +). We carried out one extensive testing with 800 colonies of O-group O145, and no virulent strain was isolated. Our findings showed that PCR-results are not sufficient to formulate epidemiological conclusions and that the isolation of strains is necessary. However, as the detection procedure of EHEC in foods is cumbersome and expensive, the appropriateness of such an approach in official food control is a matter of debate.     

Uncertainty of Trypsin Inhibitor Activity Measurement of Legume Crops Using Microtiter Plate Method

Trypsin inhibitors could limit utilization of legumes in human nutrition, but they could also have beneficial health effects. The objective of this study was to measure trypsin inhibitor activity (TIA) of different legumes using microtiter plate method and to identify factors that contribute to uncertainty of TIA measurement. TIA measurements were performed on seeds of faba bean, pea, common vetch, soybean, and common bean cultivars. The significant effect of legume crop on TIA measurement uncertainty was confirmed with P = 0.045. Certain sources of measurement uncertainty were related with the content of trypsin inhibitors (Tis) in legume seeds. In respect to that, significant effect of level of sample dilution (P ? 0.001) was confirmed. Significant influence of the repeated absorbance measurement of sample reaction mixture on uncertainty of TIA measurement was identified (P ? 0.001), and it took 60% of overall TIA measurement uncertainty for soybean cultivars. TIA of soybean cultivars exceeded 90 TUI/mg. Repeated absorbance measurement of positive control reaction mixture took 70% of TIA measurement uncertainty of cultivars with TIA lesser than 4.5 TUI/mg. Graduated cylinder used for preparation of the final sample solutions took the range from 45 to 90% of overall TIA measurement uncertainty of the cultivars whose TIA were in the middle of previously mentioned. The uncertainty of TIA measurement of legume crops was not studied before; thus, this study pointed out that acquiring insight into factors contributing to uncertainty of TIA measurement could give directions for improvement of TIA testing if microtiter plate method is used.     

Comparative Study on the Inactivation and Photoreactivation Response of <Emphasis Type="Italic">Listeria monocytogenes</Emphasis> Seafood Isolates and a <Emphasis Type="Italic">Listeria innocua</Emphasis> Surrogate after Pulsed Light Treatment

The inactivation and photoreactivation response of six seafood-isolated Listeria monocytogenes and one Listeria innocua strain after pulsed light (PL) treatment was evaluated. The lower inactivation levels found after exposure of treated samples to daylight during the first 90 min of storage confirmed that both L. innocua and L. monocytogenes have the capability to photorepair PL-induced DNA damage upon appropriate conditions. Photoreactivation levels from 0.2 to 2.1 log CFU cm^?2 were observed depending on treatment intensity (fluence) and Listeria strain. Complete photorepair of PL-caused damage was not found even after treatments inducing low inactivation levels. Photoreactivation increased up to 2.1 log with the applied fluence up to a threshold able to cause between 2.4 and 5.4 log reductions under dark storage. Photorepair was not avoided but lower photoreactivation was observed after higher fluence inducing more than 6 log reductions under dark storage. Both L. innocua and L. monocytogenes serotype 1/2b exhibited the highest photoreactivation levels whereas serotypes 1/2a showed the lowest ones. The overall inactivation and photoreactivation responses of tested Listeria strains were comparable indicating that L. innocua may be a good surrogate for the safe evaluation, optimization and validation of PL technology to control L. monocytogenes in food products and food processing facilities.     

Effect of Thermosonic Pretreatment and Microwave Vacuum Drying on the Water State and Glass Transition Temperature in <Emphasis Type="Italic">Agaricus bisporus</Emphasis> Slices

This study aimed to understand the micromechanism of thermosonic pretreatment and microwave vacuum drying on Agaricus bisporus. The water state and glass transition temperature (T _g ) of fresh and thermosonically treated Agaricus bisporus slices during microwave vacuum drying were studied using differential scanning calorimetry (DSC), low-field nuclear magnetic resonance (LF-NMR), and magnetic resonance imaging (MRI). Results showed that four population groups were contained in the initial distribution of transverse relaxation time (T ₂) data of fresh A. bisporus slices: T ₂₁ (0.38–7.05 ms), T ₂₂ (9.33–32.75 ms), T ₂₃₁ (37.65–265.61 ms), and T ₂₃₂ (305.39–811.13 ms). Thermosonic pretreatment significantly decreased the initial free water content of A. bisporus sample but was accompanied by a sharp increase in its immobilized water. “Semi-bound water transfer” appeared during microwave vacuum drying (MVD) at moisture contents (X _w ) of 0.70 and 0.60 g/g (wet basis (w.b.)) for untreated and thermosonically treated samples, respectively. MVD caused dramatic changes in the water state and enhanced the T _g by decreasing the content and mobility of immobilized water in A. bisporus tissues. The mobility of semi-bound water for thermosonically and MVD-treated samples was higher than for MVD-untreated samples, resulting in T _g values decreasing by approximately 2–11.5 °C, but the uniformity of water distribution in thermosonic-treated and MVD-treated samples was better at X _w  ≤ 0.52 g/g (w.b.).     

Microbial Enzymes as Substitutes of Chemical Additives in Baking Wheat Flour—Part I: Individual Effects of Nine Enzymes on Flour Dough Rheology

In this work, we evaluated the effects of nine commercial enzymes—fungal (AMY-F), bacterial (AMY-B), and maltogenic (AMY-M) α-amylases, fungal (XYL-F) and bacterial (XYL-B) xylanases, glucose oxidase (GOX), laccase (LAC), lipase (LIP), and transglutaminase (TG) on the rheological properties of common wheat flour. Falling Number (FN), farinography, and alveography analysess were carried out varying the enzyme concentrations from 25 to 833 U kg^?1, aiming to reach baking quality. α-Amylases affected mainly the farinographic properties, reducing the water absorption (WA) and stability time (ST). AMY-B was the most effective enzyme to adjust the FN, needing 150 U kg^?1, while for AMY-F and AMY-M, it was necessary 583 U kg^?1. In all tests, XYL-B was more efficient than XYL-F, but both improved the W value and P/L ratio. At 25 U kg^?1, GOX increased the development time (DT), as well as the ST and the P/L ratio. LAC, which is not a commonly used enzyme, significantly improved the ST and W values, being an interesting oxidant agent. Moreover, the ideal enzyme concentrations determined were compared with those suggested by the suppliers, with under and over dosages observed, especially for α-amylases and xylanases.     

Steaming time effects on the moisture migration and structural properties of Chinese Northern-style steamed bread

The aim of this study was to investigate the steaming time effects on proton transverse relaxation behavior with low field 1H nuclear magnetic resonance and structural properties of Chinese Northern-style steamed bread (CNSB). Three proton populations could be distinguished at the first 4 min: T_2b (0.1–1 ms) corresponded to rigid and exchangeable protons; T₂₂ (9–21 ms) was associated with the water protons in small and large meshes of the dough microstructure; T₂₃ (69–300 ms) was assigned to the water protons on the surface of samples. The starch gelatinization began and the water turned into the integral part of the biopolymer at 6 min, forming T₂₁ (1–3 ms) fraction. The gelatinization effect was strengthened up to 8 min and supplied a more mobile microenvironment, resulting in the increase of T₂₁, A₂₁ and M₂₁. However, the gelatinization process ended at 8 min, bringing about the stabilization of T₂₁, A₂₁ and M₂₁ until 25 min. T₂₂ fraction accounted for the largest proportion during all the steaming process. All variation trends on structural properties of CNSB and T₂ relaxation parameters including T_i, A_i (relative intensity of T_i), and M_i (population abundance of T_i) indicated that 6 and 8 min were the two transitions. The gluten matrix began to be disrupted at 6 min and was quite damaged up to 8 min by scanning electron microscopy. The peaks at 15°, 18°, 20°, and 23° in X-ray diffraction patterns appeared in the first 6 min but were lost up to 8, 10, and 25 min.     

Microbiota associated with the starter cultures and brewing process of traditional <Emphasis Type="Italic">Hong Qu</Emphasis> glutinous rice wine

Hong Qu glutinous rice wine (produced mainly in Fujian province, China) is a traditional alcoholic beverage, which is prepared by fermenting cooked rice using a starter containing Monascus purpureus. In this review, the microbial diversity of fermentation starters from Fujian province, including fungi, bacteria, and yeast, is analyzed in comparison with those of “nuruk” (a traditional starter for making alcoholic beverages in Korea). The bacterial organization of Hong Qu starters was vastly variable in species composition and dominated by Bacillus sp. Lactic acid bacteria were also found in some starters. In case of fungi, Monascus sp. was dominant, whereas non-Saccharomyces yeast such as Saccharomycopsis fibuligera was detected. The microorganisms found in the nuruk starter are, in general, not significantly diverse compared with those found in the Hong Qu starter, with the exception of Monascus sp.; however, Hong Qu and nuruk both contain their own unique microbiota, which are quite diverse from each other.