Sintering Atmosphere Effects on the Ductility of W- Ni- Fe Heavy Metals

Residual porosity has a strong negative effect on the ductility of tungsten-nickel-iron heavy metals. This investigation examines the sintering atmosphere role in stabilizing detrimental residual pore structures. Two types of experiments are reported on alloys containing 93, 95, or 97 wt pct W with Ni:Fe ratios of 7:3. The negative effect of prolonged sintering is attributed to pore coarsening involving trapped gas in the pores. Calculated pore growth rates for hydrogen filled pores suggest that pore coarsening involves both ripening and coalescence driven by tungsten grain growth. The effect of the sintering atmosphere is analyzed for final stage pore elimination. It is demonstrated that a change in sintering atmosphere from hydrogen to argon midway through the sintering cycle can aid pore degassing and increase the sintered ductility and strength. Formerly Postdoctoral Fellow at Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute under a fellowship from the Korea Science and Engineering Foundation     

Sintering High Tungsten Content W-Ni-Fe Heavy Alloys by Microwave Radiation

This paper presents a detailed study of microwave (MW) sintering of W-Ni-Fe heavy alloys (WHAs) with tungsten (W) content 90 to 98 mass pct (Ni and Fe mass ratio of 7 to 3) in comparison with conventional (CV) hydrogen sintering. Experimental results show that WHAs were MW sintered to fully dense (≥99 pct of theoretical) when heated to sintering temperatures at a heating rate of 50 K/min to 80 K/min (50 °C/min to 80 °C/min) and isothermally held for 2 to 10 minutes, with sintering cycle times of only 25 to 35 minutes (excluding the cooling time). The desired microstructures of finer W grains, more matrix phases, and lower W contiguity (in 95W and 98W) were produced compared to the counterparts by CV sintering. Such microstructural features offered the alloys excellent tensile properties: ultimate tensile strengths (UTS) 1080 to 1110 MPa and tensile elongation 22.1 to 26.8 pct in 90 to 95W, and UTS 920 MPa and elongation 11.2 pct in 98W. MW sintering appeared to be more effective in fabricating WHAs with W content ≥95 pct. It was observed that the superior UTS with MW-sintered alloys was mainly due to the fast heating and shortened isothermal holding times. Prolonged sintering led to substantial grain coarsening as a result of faster tungsten grain growth in MW sintering, and consequently deteriorated the tensile properties. The grain growth rate constant K achieved was calculated to be 5.1 μm³/s for MW sintering compared to 2.9 μm³/s for CV sintering. Fast heating and short isothermal holding times are thus suggested for the fabrication of WHAs by MW sintering.     

Sintering atmosphere effects on tensile properties of heavy alloys

The sintering atmosphere has a direct bearing on the residual porosity which in turn has a strong negative influence on the tensile properties of W-Ni-Fe heavy alloys. The present investigation uses various sintering atmospheres to understand pore formation, densification, microstructure, and tensile properties of heavy alloys with tungsten contents ranging from 88 to 97 wt Pct. Pore formation when sintering in a dry hydrogen atmosphere is linked to water vapor generation and its entrapment in pores. A hydrogen dew point effect is associated with solution-reprecipitation of tungsten during liquid phase sintering. The beneficial effect of vacuum sintering has been analyzed in terms of removal of the gases before pore closure. Property degradation during long time vacuum sintering is attributed to preferential matrix vaporization. The negative effect of long sintering times in dry hydrogen is attributed to pore coarsening, which is removed by a three-stage sintering atmosphere treatment.     

Microstructure effects on tensile properties of tungsten-Nickel-Iron composites

Controlled processing of heavy alloys containing 88 to 97 pct W resulted in high sintered densities and excellent bonding between the tungsten grains and matrix. For these alloys, deformation and fracture behavior were studiedvia slow strain rate tensile testing at room temperature. The flow stress increased and the fracture strain decreased with increasing tungsten content. The tradeoff between strength and ductility resulted in a maximum in the ultimate tensile strength at 93 pct W. Microstructure variations, notably grain size, explain sintering temperature and time effects on the properties. During tensile testing, cracks formed on the surface of the specimens at tungsten-tungsten grain boundaries. The crack density increased with plastic strain and tungsten content. The surface cracks, though initially blunted by the matrix, eventually increased in density until catastrophic failure occurred. An empirical failure criterion was developed relating fracture to a critical value of the surface crack tip separation distance. Application of the model explains the effects of microstructural variables on tensile properties. Formerly Graduate Research Assistant at Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute.     

Pore Formation and Its Effect on Mechanical Properties in W—Ni—Fe Heavy Alloy

Abstract

W–Ni–Fe heavy alloy tensile specimens were sintered at 1450°C for various times up to 44h. The W content varied between 90 and 96 wt-%, and the Ni to Fe weight ratio was 1:1. The specimens are fully densified after 15 min to 1 h of sintering and show high strength and ductility. During the tension test, cracks are formed at the interface between tungsten grains when the grain deformation reaches critical levels. The number of these intergranular cracks increases with deformation until the specimens fracture. When the specimens are over-sintered for 4 and 8 h, large irregular pores are formed with a sharp decrease of strength and ductility. Upon further sintering, the porosity decreases again with a recovery of the mechanical properties. The results demonstrate that small amounts of porosity, even 1 or 2%, can cause drastic reduction of the mechanical properties in tungsten heavy alloys.     

固相烧结低钨含量W-Ni-Fe合金的微观结构与力学性能

采用固相烧结工艺(1 300℃保温1 h)制备低钨含量(质量分数为60%~80%)的W-Ni-Fe合金,测定合金的抗拉强度、抗压强度和伸长率,利用金相显微镜观察合金的显微组织,并通过扫描电镜(SEM)观察合金断口形貌,研究钨含量对固相烧结W-Ni-Fe合金力学性能与微观结构的影响。结果表明:随钨含量降低,合金的孔隙率和平均孔径减小,抗拉强度增大,伸长率显著提高,抗压强度变化不大。W含量为60%~80%的W-Ni-Fe合金,其孔隙率为17.8%~21.4%,抗拉强度为231~262 MPa,抗压强度2 450~2 550 MPa,伸长率为0.3%~2.3%,压拉比为9.45~11.04,都能满足易碎型穿甲弹弹芯材料的性能要求。     

纳米Y2O3 对97W-2Ni-Fe 合金组织与性能的影响

以W、Ni、Fe元素粉末和纳米Y₂O₃粉末为原料,制备97W-2Ni-1Fe和96.5W-2Ni-Fe-0.5Y₂O₃钨合金,通过扫描电镜(SEM)、能谱仪(EDS)等手段进行表征,并结合黏结相的面积分数和W晶粒接触度的分析,研究烧结温度与添加纳米Y₂O₃对高密度钨合金微观组织与力学性能的影响。结果表明:随烧结温度升高,钨合金的晶粒尺寸和力学性能明显增加。在1510℃(液相)烧结温度下,添加纳米Y₂O₃使钨晶粒尺寸从21.6μm减小至7.8μm,黏结相的面积分数从4.45%增加至5.35%,接触度为0.67,合金力学性能显著提升,抗拉强度达到611 MPa,硬度(HRC)为40.1。96.5W-2Ni-Fe-0.5Y₂O₃合金的拉伸断裂形态为黏结相的撕裂和少量W晶粒解理断裂,添加纳米Y₂O₃使得黏结相撕裂的比例增加。     

Influence of Temperature and Grain Size on Austenite Stability in Medium Manganese Steels

With an aim to elucidate the influence of temperature and grain size on austenite stability, a commercial cold-rolled 7Mn steel was annealed at 893 K (620 °C) for times varying between 3 minutes and 96 hours to develop different grain sizes. The austenite fraction after 3 minutes was 34.7 vol pct, and at longer times was around 40 pct. An elongated microstructure was retained after shorter annealing times while other conditions exhibited equiaxed ferrite and austenite grains. All conditions exhibit similar temperature dependence of mechanical properties. With increasing test temperature, the yield and tensile strength decrease gradually, while the uniform and total elongation increase, followed by an abrupt drop in strength and ductility at 393 K (120 °C). The Olson–Cohen model was applied to fit the transformed austenite fractions for strained tensile samples, measured by means of XRD. The fit results indicate that the parameters α and β decrease with increasing test temperature, consistent with increased austenite stability. The 7Mn steels exhibit a distinct temperature dependence of the work hardening rate. Optimized austenite stability provides continuous work hardening in the temperature range of 298 K to 353 K (25 °C to 80 °C). The yield and tensile strengths have a strong dependence on grain size, although grain size variations have less effect on uniform and total elongation.     

Microstructure of the gravitationally settled region in a liquid-phase sintered dilute tungsten heavy alloy

A dilute tungsten heavy alloy consisting of 50W-35Ni-15Fe (wt pct) was liquid phase sintered at 1500 ° for times ranging from 30 to 960 minutes. This alloy corresponds to a nominal solid content of 20 vol pct at the sintering temperature. Because of the excess liquid, the alloy den-sified easily and exhibited extensive liquid-solid separation due to the density difference between the phases. The solid content at the compact bottom ranged from 45 to 70 vol pct over position and time. The microstructure of the settled region was quantified for volume fraction of tung-sten, grain size, connectivity, and settled solid angle of repose. These results provide a basis for extending the microstructural parameters to possible microgravity conditions. The grain growth rate constant varies with the inverse 2/3 power of the volume fraction of liquid, possibly re-flecting combined coalescence and solution-reprecipitation processes. This volume-fraction ef-fect on the grain-growth-rate constant applies to several systems.     

Microstructure Evolution and Mechanical Behavior of Cold-Sprayed,Bulk Nanostructured Titanium

To provide insight into the microstructural evolution and mechanical behavior of bulk nanostructured Ti, we used cold gas dynamic spraying of Ti particles to synthesize thick coatings (e.g., >10 mm in thickness). Accordingly, the grain size, lattice parameter, lattice strain, residual stress, porosity, microhardness, tensile, and compressive behavior of the bulk Ti deposits before and after annealing were comparatively analyzed. Our results show that the microstructure of the as-sprayed bulk Ti was characterized by a grain size of ~60 nm, lattice expansion (~2 pct for \( a \) and ~3 pct for \( c \) ), lattice strain (~1.65 × 10^?5), and residual compressive stress (~53 MPa). Moreover, annealing of the as-deposited bulk Ti led to a significant decrease in lattice expansion, lattice strain, and residual stress, whereas porosity remained unchanged (~11 pct). The mechanisms of grain growth, as well as the evolution of particle interfaces during annealing, were also investigated. In terms of mechanical behavior, the as-deposited bulk Ti exhibited a very low modulus (52 GPa) with relatively high tensile and compressive strength values (180 and 850 MPa, respectively). Annealing in the temperature range of 1023 K to 1173 K (750 °C to 900 °C) led to a significant increase of tensile and compressive strength (to 380 MPa and more than 1200 MPa, respectively). Finally, annealing resulted in a slight increase of elastic modulus, which was rationalized on the basis of changes in pore geometry in the bulk Ti deposits.     

Co/Ni比对93W-Co-Ni钨合金烧结温度及力学性能的影响

以Co、Ni作黏结剂,选择不同Co/Ni比,用粉末冶金法制备出HRC硬度在30⁴3之间的93W-Co-Ni钨合金。采用光学金相、扫描电镜对合金组织形貌进行表征,采用准静态拉伸试验对合金的抗拉强度及延伸率进行测试,采用洛氏硬度计对合金硬度进行测定。结果表明:随着Co/Ni比增加,合金的烧结温度逐渐增加,其抗拉强度与延伸率急剧降低,而硬度先增加之后趋于稳定;当Co/Ni≥1.0时,合金抗拉强度很低,延伸率≤1%;当Co/Ni≥4时,其HRC硬度值稳定在4143之间的93W-Co-Ni钨合金。采用光学金相、扫描电镜对合金组织形貌进行表征,采用准静态拉伸试验对合金的抗拉强度及延伸率进行测试,采用洛氏硬度计对合金硬度进行测定。结果表明:随着Co/Ni比增加,合金的烧结温度逐渐增加,其抗拉强度与延伸率急剧降低,而硬度先增加之后趋于稳定;当Co/Ni≥1.0时,合金抗拉强度很低,延伸率≤1%;当Co/Ni≥4时,其HRC硬度值稳定在41⁴3之间,明显高于一般的W-Ni-Fe合金,这主要与Co对W基体的润湿性较差及两者之间易形成脆性化合物Co7W6有关。     

Achieving High Strength and High Ductility in Friction Stir-Processed Cast Magnesium Alloy

Friction stir processing (FSP) is emerging as an effective tool for microstructural modification and property enhancement. As-cast AZ91 magnesium alloy was friction stir processed with one-pass and two-pass to examine the influence of processing conditions on microstructural evolution and corresponding mechanical properties. Grain refinement accompanied with development of strong basal texture was observed for both processing conditions. Ultrafine-grained (UFG) AZ91 was achieved under two-pass FSP with fine precipitates distributed on the grain boundary. The processed UFG AZ91 exhibited a high tensile strength of ~435 MPa (117 pct improvement) and tensile fracture elongation of ~23 pct. The promising combination of strength and ductility is attributed to the elimination of casting porosity, and high density of fine precipitates in an UFG structure with quite low dislocation density. The effects of grain size, precipitate, and texture on deformation behavior have been discussed.     

烧结温度对高钨重合金性能的影响

研究了烧结温度对高钨含量W—Ni—Fe重合金显微组织及力学性能的影响。结果表明：钨基重合金的显微组织和力学性能与烧结温度密切相关。合适的烧结温度可以使合金具有良好的显微组织和优良的力学性能，而烧结温度较低时，合金中的粘结相分布不均匀，烧结温度较高时，合金中的钨颗粒粗大，两者都会显著降低其力学性能。     

Effects of Tungsten Addition on the Microstructure and Mechanical Properties of Microalloyed Forging Steels

In the current study, the effects of tungsten (W) addition on the microstructure, hardness, and room/low [223 K and 173 K (?50 °C and ?100 °C)] temperature tensile properties of microalloyed forging steels were systematically investigated. Four kinds of steel specimens were produced by varying the W additions (0, 0.1, 0.5, and 1 wt pct). The microstructure showed that the addition of W does not have any noticeable effect on the amount of precipitates. The precipitates in W-containing steels were all rich in W, and the W concentration in the precipitates increased with the increasing W content. The mean sizes of both austenite grains and precipitates decreased with the increasing W content. When the W content was equal to or less than 0.5 pct, the addition of W favored the formation of allotriomorphic ferrite, which subsequently promoted the development of acicular ferrite in the microalloyed forging steels. The results of mechanical tests indicated that W plays an important role in increasing the hardness and tensile strength. When the testing temperature was decreased, the tensile strength showed an increasing trend. Both the yield strength and the ultimate tensile strength obeyed an Arrhenius type of relation with respect to temperature. When the temperature was decreased from 223 K to 173 K (from ?50 °C to ?100 °C), a ductile-to-brittle transition (DBT) of the specimen with 1 pct W occurred. The addition of W favored a higher DBT temperature. From the microstructural and mechanical test results, it is demonstrated that the addition of 0.5 pct W results in the best combination of excellent room/low-temperature tensile strength and ductility.     

The properties of tungsten processed by chemically activated sintering

Two tungsten powders have been treated with small concentrations of sintering activators to provide for enhanced low temperature sintering. The experimental study focused on the determination of the processing effects on properties such as sintered density, grain size, hardness, and strength. Variables in the plan included tungsten particle size, type of activator, amount of activator, compaction pressure, and sintering temperature. The sintered density is found to have a dominant effect on strength and hardness. The various processing variables are analyzed in terms of their effects on density. At high sintered densities, grain growth acts to degrade the strength. Additionally, the nature of the sintering activator influences the fracture strength. In this study optimal strength occurred with a 0.7 μm tungsten powder treated with 0.29 wt pct Ni, sintered at 1200 °C for one hour. The resulting density was 18.21 g/cm³, with aR _A hardness of 69 and a transverse rupture strength of 460 MPa.     

碳含量对W-Ni-Fe系合金析出相及动态力学性能的影响

研究了碳含量对98W和99W析出相形貌和数量的影响,及其对用Hopkinson装置测试的动态力学性能的影响。研究表明,99W不添加碳时,沿W晶粒壳层有少量的析出相生成,随着添加碳和碳含量的增多,析出相增多,其形态逐渐由壳层状变成针状+粒状,再变成片状。析出相的增多,使动态拉伸强度下降,而对动态压缩强度的影响很小。     

W质量分数对Mo-W合金组织结构与力学性能的影响

采用粉末冶金法制备含不同质量分数W(20%~80%)的Mo-W合金, 研究W含量对Mo-W合金组织结构与力学性能的影响。结果表明: 烧结过程中Mo与W相互扩散形成单相固溶体。W质量分数的增加能显著降低Mo-W合金的晶粒尺寸, 经1990℃烧结的Mo-80W合金晶粒尺寸比Mo-20W合金下降了46.5%。随W质量分数的增加, Mo-W合金的维氏硬度呈“双驼峰”形变化趋势, 在W质量分数为40%与60%处出现峰值。Mo-W合金的相对密度和抗拉强度随W质量分数的增加而下降, 抗拉强度最大值出现在烧结温度为1990℃的Mo-20W合金, 达到514.83 MPa; 随烧结温度的升高, 低W含量的Mo-W合金(W质量分数20%~40%)抗拉强度呈先上升后下降趋势, 而高W含量的Mo-W合金(W质量分数60%~80%)抗拉强度逐渐升高。Mo-W合金断裂方式为沿晶断裂与穿晶断裂相结合的混合模式。     

多次烧结对钨铜合金组织与性能的影响

对熔渗法制备的钨铜合金(CuW80)分别进行了3、6、9次烧结。采用金相显微镜、扫描电子显微镜、X射线衍射仪、压汞仪等表征手段,研究了烧结次数对CuW80合金组织和性能的影响。结果表明:随着烧结次数的增加,CuW80合金中钨颗粒直径逐渐增大并连接,铜相分布更加均匀,多次烧结未见新相生成;经过3次烧结后,试样孔隙率由最初的0.5185%变为2.0516%,孔径增加主要集中在0.5~3μm范围内,但9次烧结后试样的孔隙率大大降低;合金硬度由烧结前的HB 204变化至烧结后的HB 188;试样电导率由25.06 mS/m降低至21.92 mS/m;合金密度较烧结前降低了1.2%。     

Fracture Behavior of W-Ni-Fe Heavy Alloys

Heavy alloys were liquid phase sintered from compacts of mixed W, Ni, and Fe powders. The alloy compositions ranged from 93 to 97 wt pct W, with the Ni:Fe ratio maintained at 7:3. Sintering was performed under hydrogen in the 1465 to 1485 °C temperature range, giving full density within the first 15 minutes. The room temperature strength and ductility showed major degradation with sintering times in excess of two hours. Tensile tests and bend tests have been performed to isolate the fracture mode and the property determining features. Initial cracking occurs at the tungsten-tungsten grain boundaries and in the tungsten grains. These latter cracks propagate through the structure to give eventual failure. The ductility to failure is shown to be governed by the strength of the tungsten-matrix interface. The maximum elongation depends on the contiguity, which in turn is set by the alloy composition. Formerly a Postdoctoral Fellow at RPI under a fellowship from the Korea Science and Engineering Foundation     

氧对95W-3.15Ni-1.35Fe-0.5Co合金组织及力学性能的影响

研究了氧对95W-3．15Ni-1．35Fe-0．5Co合金组织及力学性能的影响。结果表明：氧主要偏聚于钨合金的钨晶粒边缘和残留孔隙表面，氧偏聚的地方容易形成孔洞；氧的存在影响了Fe、Ni、Co在粘结相中的原子扩散和烧结动力；采用氢气预烧脱氧，可以提高钨合金的力学性能。