日本饮用水水质检测标准化概述及启示

饮用水水质安全状况直接关系到人体健康,水质检测是饮用水监管的核心要素之一,是确保饮用水水质达标的重要环节。基于日本的饮用水水质标准以及《水道法施行规则》中对水质检测的要求,系统梳理了东京都、大阪府、爱知县三个地区的饮用水水质检测实施情况,对日本的饮用水水质检测计划、检测指标、检测频率等在合规性与适用性等方面的特点进行了全面解析,探讨了其标准规范的制定、水质检测计划制度、监管实施机制、检测指标与频率动态管理、供水服务信息公开等方面对我国饮用水监管标准化工作的启示,以期为进一步提升我国饮用水卫生标准修订的动态性与周期性,建立饮用水标准的适用性评估技术提供参考。     

饮用水的水质生物稳定性（上）

扼要介绍饮用水水质生物稳定性的判断指标，以及提出接近、达到生物稳定性饮用水的水处理技术。     

饮用水水质准则的发展

主要介绍了世界卫生组织（WHO）的《饮用水水质准则》的发展与指导思想，以及制修订过程中指标数量的变化与指标值的变动等，并就指标数量与我国《生活饮用水水质卫生规范》进行了比较。     

饮用水水质安全保障技术浅议

介绍了饮用水水质安全的重要性,就目前饮用水水源、水质指标、处理技术、管网二次污染等问题,提出了解决饮用水水质安全的措施。加强饮用水水质安全保障技术的措施:保护水源,加强水污染控制,改进水处理技术,防治饮用水的二次污染,加快水质安全监测系统的建立。     

新国标全面升级饮水标准

自今年7月1日起，国家标准委和卫生部联合修订的《生活饮用水卫生标准》和13项生活饮用水卫生检验方法国家标准将开始实施。该标准属强制性国家标准，此次修订是自1985年首次发布以来的第一次修订，全部指标由原标准的35项增至106项，并对原标准35项指标中的8项进行了修订。在各类指标中，可能对人体健康产生危害或潜在威胁的指标占80％左右，属于影响水质感官性状和一般理化指标约占20％。新标准将大幅度提高我国生活饮用水卫生标准的指标数量。在源水水质持续恶化的情况下，如何提高饮用水质量，是业界和消费者所共同关注的问题。本刊特编发此组稿件．以飨读者。     

改良型综合指数法在饮用水水质评价中的应用

提出了一种应用于饮用水水质评价的改良型综合指数评价法。该方法根据采样频率,将水质指标分为动态项和基准项两类,结合内梅罗法与单因子指数法对水质指标进行分类计算。并根据水质指标的危害性程度和水质安全重要性,对各项赋予一定的权重值,从而更好地保证水质评价的动态性和稳定性。将该方法运用于某市3个典型水厂的饮用水水质评价,结果表明,改良型综合指数法能够综合定量地反映饮用水水质的整体水平及变化情况,为饮用水水质的综合评价提供了一种科学、可靠的方法。     

基于SOM网络模型的供水管网水质综合评价

以供水管网微观模型为基础,综合考虑各种水质指标,采用自组织特征映射(SOM)网络和K-means算法对城市供水管网饮用水水质进行聚类分析。结果表明,水质综合评价方法可以综合考虑各种水质指标,克服了单一指标评价模型极端化、片面化的缺点,客观反映了管网中饮用水的水质状态。可见,利用SOM网络模型进行城市供水管网水质综合评价是可行的。     

某科研院职工餐厅饮用水系统改造工程探讨

为了保障地处北京郊区某科研院广大职工的饮水安全和身体健康,通过对其职工餐厅饮用水水质状况进行检测和分析,提出了较为合理的饮用水系统改造方案,改造完成后出水水质各项指标均优于饮用水安全标准。     

三大饮用水水质标准指标体系及特点比较

针对目前国际上三种较权威的饮用水水质标准：WHO的《饮用水水质准则》、EC的《饮用水水质指令》、USEPA的《美国饮用水水质标准》，从指标系统、特点、影响及推广区域等方面进行了比较，指出各类标准的建立和实施与各国的经济发展、技术水平、环境条件等是密不可分的。     

高层建筑生活饮用水水质污染及对策

对高层建筑生活饮用水水质污染的原因进行了分析，阐述了防止生活饮用水水质污染的必要性，在此基础上提出了生活饮用水水质污染防治的措施。     

Application of ozone, UV and ozone/UV processes to reduce diethyl phthalate and its estrogenic activity

A research study to monitor the micropollutant levels present in the Han River, a major drinking water source for the Seoul Metropolitan district in Korea, was performed over a five-year period from 2000 to 2004, inclusive. Of the detected micropollutants, phthalates were found to be the major contaminants. In this study, the estrogenic activities of the detected phthalates and raw water samples contaminated with the pollutants were assessed by the E-screen assay using the MCF-7 breast cancer cell line. Of the phthalates, diethyl phthalate (DEP) and di(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate (DEHP) showed relatively high cell proliferation. Using DEP as a phthalate probe, three candidate processes, ozone alone, UV alone, and the ozone/UV combined, were evaluated for their efficiency in removing DEP and reducing its estrogenic activity. The ozone/UV process was shown to have the highest efficiency for the elimination of DEP and its by-products, leading to the complete mineralization of DEP. This study also found that the ozone/UV process is the best candidate to reduce the estrogenicity induced by DEP and its by-products.     

Biological assessments of a mixture of endocrine disruptors at environmentally relevant concentrations in water following UV/H2O2 oxidation

Numerous studies have investigated degradation of individual endocrine disrupting compounds (EDCs) in lab or natural waters. However, natural variations in water matrices and mixtures of EDCs in the environment may confound analysis of the treatment efficiency. Because chemical based analytical methods cannot represent the combined or synergistic activities between water quality parameters and/or the EDC mixtures at environmentally relevant concentrations (microg L(-1)-ng L(-1)), bioanalytical assessments of residual estrogenic activity in treated water were used to evaluate the performance of the UV based advanced oxidation process for estrogenic contaminants in water. Four EDCs including estradiol (E(2)), ethinyl estradiol (EE(2)), bisphenol-A (BPA) and nonylphenol (NP) were spiked individually or as a mixture at mug L(-1)-ng L(-1) in laboratory or natural river water. The removal rates of estrogenic activity were quantitatively evaluated by in vitro yeast estrogen screen (YES) and in vivo Vitellogenin (VTG) assays with Japanese medaka fish (Oryzias latipes). UV in combination with 10 ppm H(2)O(2) as an oxidation process was capable of decreasing in vitro and in vivo estrogenic activity, however, in vivo estrogenic activity of the EDC mixture in natural water was not completely removed at UV fluence up to 2000 mJ cm(-2). The removal rates of in vitro estrogenic activity of the EDC mixtures were lower than those observed for single compounds, and slower in natural waters, likely due to lower steady-state concentrations of hydroxyl radicals (*OH) in the presence of *OH scavengers from the water matrix and EDC mixture.     

Effect of water composition, distance and season on the adenosine triphosphate concentration in unchlorinated drinking water in the Netherlands

The objective of our study was to determine whether water composition, distance to the treatment plant and season significantly affect the adenosine triphosphate (ATP) concentration in distributed drinking water, in order to resolve the suitability of ATP as an indicator parameter for microbial regrowth. Results demonstrated that the ATP concentration in distributed water averaged between 0.8 and 12.1 ng ATP L⁻¹ in the Netherlands. Treatment plants with elevated biofilm formation rates in treated water, showed significantly higher ATP concentrations in distributed drinking water and ATP content was significantly higher in the summer/autumn compared to the winter period at these plants. Furthermore, transport of drinking water in a large-sized distribution system resulted in significantly lower ATP concentrations in water from the distal than the proximal part of the distribution system. Finally, modifications in the treatment significantly affected ATP concentrations in the distributed drinking water. Overall, the results from our study demonstrate that ATP is a suitable indicator parameter to easily, rapidly and quantitatively determine the total microbial activity in distributed drinking water.     

Identification of estrogen-like effects and biologically active compounds in river water using bioassays and chemical analysis

The Nackdong River is the longest river in South Korea and passes through major cities that have several industrial complexes, including chemical, electric, and petrochemical complexes, and municipal characteristics such as apartment complexes. Along the river, the Gumi region has an electric industrial complex and an apartment complex that may be possible point sources of xenoestrogens such as phenolic compounds. To identify the causative chemicals for estrogenic activity in the river water of this region, bioassay-directed chemical analysis was performed. All samples from six sampling sites (an upstream point: S1; hot spot points: S2-1, S2-2, and S2-3; and downstream points: S3, and S4) showed estrogenic activity in the E-screen assay, with bio-EEQs (17β-E₂-equivalent quantities) ranging from 25.35-677.15 pg/L. Samples from S2-2, the sampling point downstream of the junction of stream water, and domestic and industrial wastewater, contained the highest estrogenic activity. Since the bio-EEQ of the organic acid fraction (F2) of the S2-2 sample had the highest activity (823.25 pg-EEQ/L) and F2 may contain phenolic compounds, GC-MS analyses for phenolic xenoestrogens were conducted with the organic acid fractions of the river water samples. Six estrogenic phenolic chemicals, 4-NP, BPA, 4-t-OP, 4-t-BP, 4-n-OP, and 4-n-HTP, were detected, with the highest concentrations (I-EEQ) found in S2-2 (231.80 pg/L). Among these phenolic chemicals, 4-NP was the most potent estrogen (bio-EEF; 8.12 × 10^− 5) and acted as a full agonist. Furthermore, 4-NP was present at levels (2.0 µg/L in S2-2) that can induce VTG induction in fish (>1 µg/L). In addition, we confirmed that river water (S2-2) significantly increased serum VTG levels in crucian carp (Carassius auratus) in a fish exposure experiment under laboratory conditions. Therefore, phenolic xenoestrogens, especially 4-NP, may be the main causative compounds responsible for the estrogenic effect on the Nackdong River.     

杭州市管道直饮水的现状及前景分析

分析了目前国内直接饮用水的现状。介绍了杭州地区直饮水发展成果，通过比较分析得出适合杭州现状的供应模式，最后展望了杭州未来直饮水的前景，以使杭州市供水满足要求。     

Development and validation of a drinking water temperature model in domestic drinking water supply systems

Domestic drinking water supply systems (DDWSs) are the final step in the delivery of drinking water to consumers. Temperature is one of the rate-controlling parameters for many chemical and microbiological processes and is, therefore, considered as a surrogate parameter for water quality processes. In this study, a mathematical model is presented that predicts temperature dynamics of the drinking water in DDWSs. A full-scale DDWS resembling a conventional system was built and run according to one year of stochastic demands with a time step of 10 s. The drinking water temperature was measured at each point-of-use in the systems and the data-set was used for model validation. The temperature model adequately reproduced the temperature profiles, both in cold and hot water lines, in the full-scale DDWS. The model showed that inlet water temperature and ambient temperature have a large effect on the water temperature in the DDWSs.     

Rapid, cultivation-independent assessment of microbial viability in drinking water

Fast and accurate monitoring of chemical and microbiological parameters in drinking water is essential to safeguard the consumer and to improve the understanding of treatment and distribution systems. However, most water utilities and drinking water guidelines still rely solely on time-requiring heterotrophic plate counts (HPC) and plating for faecal indicator bacteria as regular microbiological control parameters. The recent development of relative simple bench-top flow cytometers has made rapid and quantitative analysis of cultivation-independent microbial parameters more feasible than ever before. Here we present a study using a combination of cultivation-independent methods including fluorescence staining (for membrane integrity, membrane potential and esterase activity) combined with flow cytometry and total adenosine tri-phosphate (ATP) measurements, to assess microbial viability in drinking water. We have applied the methods to different drinking water samples including non-chlorinated household tap water, untreated natural spring water, and commercially available bottled water. We conclude that the esterase-positive cell fraction, the total ATP values and the high nucleic acid (HNA) bacterial fraction (from SYBR((R)) Green I staining) were most representative of the active/viable population in all of the water samples. These rapid methods present an alternative way to assess the general microbial quality of drinking water as well as specific events that can occur during treatment and distribution, with equal application possibilities in research and routine analysis.     

超滤技术用于饮用水处理领域案例分析

介绍了超滤技术在饮用水处理领域的应用情况,分别对以地表水和地下水为原水的两座超滤水厂进行分析,讨论了针对不同水源采用不同超滤组合工艺的可行性、超滤工艺的产水稳定性以及超滤相对于常规工艺所具备的优势.对两座超滤水厂制水成本的分析表明,超滤饮用水工艺既具有经济性,又具有很强的竞争力和良好的发展前景.     

Estimating elasticities of demand and willingness to pay for clean drinking water: empirical evidence from a household level survey in northern Pakistan

This study estimates income and price elasticities of demand for improved drinking water quality in Peshawar, Pakistan. The estimates indicate that improved water can be described as a necessity but normal and an ordinary and price elastic service. Confidence intervals show however that the classification as a necessity is statistically significant. Income elasticities of willingness to pay for drinking water are estimated. The study finds that income and willingness to pay vary directly and significantly. The elasticity estimates, in general, are greater than zero, but less than unity. The study concludes that improvements in drinking water are more beneficial to low‐income groups than for high‐income groups.