Optical grating diffraction method: from strain microscope to strain gauge

The grating diffraction method for direct strain measurement is reviewed. Two systems which use this method are presented. The first system is a compact strain microscope. A Leitz optical transmitting microscope with white light source is reconstructed by developing a loading and recording system. Gratings with median density of between 40 and 200 lines/mm are used. With the help of a Bertrand lens, the Fourier spectrum of the grating is formed with high image quality on the CCD sensor plane. Software is developed to precisely, quickly and automatically determine the diffraction spot centroids. The second system is a new strain sensor based on a high-frequency grating and two Position Sensor Detectors (PSDs). The grating, attached to the surface of the specimen, is illuminated by a focused laser beam, generally with a frequency of 1,200 lines/mm. The centroids of diffracted beam spots from the grating are automatically determined using two PSD sensors connected to a personal computer. The shift of diffracted beam spots due to specimen deformation is detected. Strain sensitivity of one micro-strain can be obtained, as can a 0.4 mm spatial resolution for strain measurement. The system can be used for both static and dynamic tests.     

Planar reflection grating lens for compact spectroscopic imaging system

A compact spectroscopic imaging device consisting of a planar reflection grating lens, a probe fiber array, and a two-dimensional image sensor was proposed and discussed. Reflected or luminescent lights from a subject are coupled to the probe fibers, guided to fiber output ends, radiated into the air, diffracted by the grating lens with wavelength-dependent angle, and focused onto lines on the image sensor. Two-dimensional intensity distribution on the image sensor can give one-dimensional spectrum distribution along a specified direction. A grating lens was designed with a fiber array and a CCD image sensor for 100-nm wavelength range and 10-mm fiber array width. A spectral resolution of 5 nm and a spatial resolution of 0.25 mm were experimentally confirmed.     

Optical temperature sensor and thermal expansion measurement using a femtosecond micromachined grating in 6H-SiC

An optical temperature sensor was created using a femtosecond micromachined diffraction grating inside transparent bulk 6H-SiC, and to the best of our knowledge, this is a novel technique of measuring temperature. Other methods of measuring temperature using fiber Bragg gratings have been devised by other groups such as Zhang and Kahrizi [in MEMS, NANO, and Smart Systems (IEEE, 2005)]. This temperature sensor was, to the best of our knowledge, also used for a novel method of measuring the linear and nonlinear coefficients of the thermal expansion of transparent and nontransparent materials by means of the grating first-order diffracted beam. Furthermore the coefficient of thermal expansion of 6H-SiC was measured using this new technique. A He-Ne laser beam was used with the SiC grating to produce a first-order diffracted beam where the change in deflection height was measured as a function of temperature. The grating was micromachined with a 20 microm spacing and has dimensions of approximately 500 microm x 500 microm (l x w) and is roughly 0.5 microm deep into the 6H-SiC bulk. A minimum temperature of 26.7 degrees C and a maximum temperature of 399 degrees C were measured, which gives a DeltaT of 372.3 degrees C. The sensitivity of the technique is DeltaT=5 degrees C. A maximum deflection angle of 1.81 degrees was measured in the first-order diffracted beam. The trend of the deflection with increasing temperature is a nonlinear polynomial of the second-order. This optical SiC thermal sensor has many high-temperature electronic applications such as aircraft turbine and gas tank monitoring for commercial and military applications.     

Compact silicon diffractive sensor: design, fabrication, and prototype

An in-plane constant-efficiency variable-diffraction-angle grating and an in-plane high-angular-selectivity grating are combined to enable a new compact silicon diffractive sensor. This sensor is fabricated in silicon-on-insulator and uses telecommunications wavelengths. A single sensor element has a micron-scale device size and uses intensity-based (as opposed to spectral-based) detection for increased integrability. In-plane diffraction gratings provide an intrinsic splitting mechanism to enable a two-dimensional sensor array. Detection of the relative values of diffracted and transmitted intensities is independent of attenuation and is thus robust. The sensor prototype measures refractive index changes of 10(-4). Simulations indicate that this sensor configuration may be capable of measuring refractive index changes three or four orders of magnitude smaller. The characteristics of this sensor type make it promising for lab-on-a-chip applications.     

Multipoint diffraction strain sensor with variable sensitivity

In our earlier work, a multipoint diffraction strain sensor using a microlens array was developed for measurement of whole-field strains. The method is extended to a system with variable sensitivity and measurement range. In the present system, two collimated laser beams, 3 mm in diameter, symmetrically strike the grating attached to the specimen surface at prescribed angles. The diffracted wavefronts, magnified by a microscope objective, are sampled by a lenslet array with each microlens acting as an individual strain sensor. In-plane strain components over the full field can be measured by what is to our knowledge a new sensor with variable sensitivity by changing the distance from the microscope objective to the microlens array. Both a theoretical explanation and experimental verification are provided.     

Characterization of fiber distributed-feedback lasers with an index-perturbation method

We demonstrate the characterization of fiber distributed-feedback lasers by scanning a heat-induced index perturbation along the cavity and by measuring the induced laser frequency shift. The measured shift is shown to be a good indicator for the intensity distribution in the cavity, and the experimental results reveal that the sensitivity of fiber distributed-feedback laser sensors with frequency readout is highly localized near the grating phase-shift position. Use of the characterization data to determine the grating coupling parameter kappa, the polarization dependence of kappa, and birefringence nonuniformities as well as for identification of the order of longitudinal mode operation are discussed and demonstrated experimentally. Asymmetrically phase-shifted lasers with highly directional output are also investigated.     

Simultaneous two-wavelength Doppler phase-shifting digital holography

This paper presents a method based on the use of an image sensor for obtaining the complex amplitudes of beams diffracted from an object at two different wavelengths. The complex amplitude for each wavelength is extracted by the Doppler phase-shifting method. The principle underlying the proposed method is experimentally verified by using the method with two lasers having different wavelengths to measure the surface shape of a concave mirror.     

Strain and temperature sensors using multimode optical fiber Bragg gratings and correlation signal processing

Multimode fiber optic Bragg grating sensors for strain and temperature measurements using correlation signal processing methods have been developed. Two multimode Bragg grating sensors were fabricated in 62/125 /spl mu/m graded-index silica multimode fiber; the first sensor was produced by the holographic method and the second sensor by the phase mask technique. The sensors have signal reflectivity of approximately 35% at peak wavelengths of 835 nm and 859 nm, respectively. Strain testing of both sensors has been done from 0 to 1000 /spl mu//spl epsiv/ and the temperature testing from -40 to 80/spl deg/C. Strain and temperature sensitivity values are 0.55 pm//spl mu//spl epsi/ and 6 pm//spl deg/C, respectively. The sensors are being applied in a power-by-light hydraulic valve monitoring system.     

Fiber Bragg grating displacement sensor for movement measurement of tendons and ligaments

Biomechanical studies often involve measurements of the strains developed in tendons or ligaments in posture or locomotion. Fiber-optic sensors present an attractive option for the measurement of strains in tendons and ligaments because of their low cost, ease of implementation, and increased accuracy compared with other implantable transducers. A new displacement sensor based on a fiber Bragg grating and shape memory alloy technology is proposed for the monitoring of tendon and ligament strains in different postures and in locomotion. After sensor calibration in the laboratory, a comparison of the fiber sensors and traditional camera displacement sensors was carried out to evaluate the performance of the fiber sensor during the application of tension to the Achilles tendon. Additional experiments were performed in cadaver knees to assess the suitability of these fiber sensors to measure ligament deformation in a variety of simulated postures. The results demonstrate that the proposed fiber Bragg grating sensor is a highly accurate, easily implantable, and minimally invasive method of measuring tendon and ligament displacement.     

Procedures for Wavelength Calibration and Spectral Response Correction of CCD Array Spectrometers

This work describes a procedure for acquiring a spectrum of an analyte over an extended range of wavelengths and validating the wavelength and intensity assignments. To acquire a spectrum over an extended range of wavelengths with a spectrometer with a charge coupled device (CCD) array detector, it is necessary to acquire many partial spectra, each at a different angular position of the grating, and splice the partial spectra into a single extended spectrum. The splicing procedure exposes instrument dependent artifacts. It is demonstrated that by taking a spectrum of a reference irradiance source and making spectral correction, the artifacts exposed by the splicing are removed from the analyte spectrum. This is because the irradiance reference spectrum contains the same artifacts as the analyte spectrum. The artifacts exposed by the splicing depend on the wavelength of the splice; therefore it is important to measure the irradiance reference spectrum for the same range of wavelengths used to measure the spectrum of the analyte solution. In other words, there is no general spectral correction factor which is applicable to spectra taken for different range of wavelengths. The wavelength calibration is also carried out by splicing many partial spectra from a source like a krypton lamp. However the wavelength assignments are not sensitive to the splicing procedure and the same wavelength calibration can be used for spectra acquired over different extended wavelength ranges. The wavelength calibration checks the validity of the setting of the grating angular position, and the assignment of wavelengths to individual pixels on the CCD array detector. The procedure is illustrated by measuring the spectrum of an orange glass and the spectrum of a suspension of microalgae.     

Curved elastic beam with opposed fiber-Bragg gratings for measurement of large displacements with temperature compensation

In this paper, a temperature-compensated configuration for extending the working range of fiber-Bragg grating (FBG) strain sensors has been proposed. This technique consists of the application of two FBGs to the opposite surfaces of a straight elastic beam which was bent in a horizontal direction. The difference of the two FBGs' wavelengths depends on the beam curvature, while the mean value is taken in order to compensate for the temperature effects. The sensor proposed is less fragile than the bare fiber and seems particularly suited as large displacement sensor, and for structures in which it is impossible to affix the bare fiber, such as breaks or separate elements.     

A 128×128 CMOS image sensor with analog memory forsynchronous image capture

A 128×128 CMOS imager that permits synchronous capture is presented. The sensor combines the best of CMOS imagers (low-power, random readout, nondestructive readout, single supply voltage...) and synchronous capture [available in high-end charge coupled device (CCD) imagers]. The key point in obtaining such characteristics is the separation of the photosensor and the storage element. Although some sensors with these characteristics have been reported, in this sensor, the storage capability has been brought a step further, having storage times of the order of tens of seconds, and being able to use the array itself as a random access memory (RAM). This could avoid the use of external RAM, making the system simpler, more compact, and of low-power consumption     

Design parameter evaluation of a metal recoated Fiber Bragg Grating sensors for measurement of cryogenic temperature or stress in superconducting devices

There are plenty of complex physical phenomena which remain to be studied and verified experimentally for building an optimized superconducting magnet. The main problem for experimental validations is due to the unavailability of suitable sensors. This paper proposes a Fiber Bragg Gratings (FBG) sensor for this purpose which allows access to the local temperature/stress state. To measure the low temperature (20 K), FBG can be recoated with materials having high thermal expansion coefficient (HTCE). This can induce a thermal stress for a temperature change, which in turn increases the sensitivity of the sensor. The performance of such sensors has been experimentally studied and reported in earlier paper [Rajinikumar R, Suesser M, Narayankhedkar KG, Krieg G, Atrey MD. Performance evaluation of metallic coated Fiber Bragg Grating sensors for sensing cryogenic temperature. Cryogenics 2008;48:142-7]. This paper aims at evaluation and determination of different design parameters like coating materials, coating thickness, grating period and the grating length for design of better performance FBG sensor for low temperature/stress measurements.     

Integrated optic head for sensing a two-dimensional displacement of a grating scale

An integrated optic sensor head was proposed for sensing a two-dimensional displacement of a scale consisting of crossed gratings. Two interferometers, crossing each other, are constructed by the integration of two pairs of linearly focusing grating couplers (LFGC's) and two pairs of photodiodes (PD's) on a Si substrate. Four beams radiated by the LFGC's from the sensor head overlap on the grating scale, and the beams are diffracted by the grating scale and interfere on the PD's. The period of the interference signal variation is just half of the scale grating period. The device was designed and fabricated with a grating scale of 3.2-μm period, and the sensing principle was experimentally confirmed.     

High-resolution interline image sensors using two-phase CCD technology

Two interline, 30 frames/second, high-resolution image sensors are described that use two-phase charge coupled device (CCD) technology. One is a two-megapixel, interlaced high-definition television, sensor, and the other is a 1-megapixel, progressive-scan sensor for machine vision applications. These sensors include features such as dual-horizontal CCD readout, antiblooming protection, electronic shutter capability, low smear, and no lag.©1994 John Wiley & Sons Inc     

Simultaneous formation of four fringes by using a polarization quadrature phase-shifting interferometer with wave plates and a diffraction grating

We present a new type of quadrature phase-shifting interferometer, which utilizes wave plates, a diffraction grating, and two lasers with different wavelengths, in order to acquire two sets of two quadrature fringe patterns in each wavelength formed on a single image sensor. This method for calculating with four phase-shifted fringe patterns gives us the phase sum and difference distributions between the phases in two wavelengths. This is also substantiated by results of our experiments.     

Sensitivity of embedded fibre optic Bragg grating sensors to disbonds in bonded composite ship joints

The potential application of embedded fibre optic Bragg grating strain sensors for the health monitoring of adhesively bonded composite ship joints is investigated in this paper. Bragg grating sensors were embedded at various locations along the interface of adhesively bonded glass-reinforced plastic composite joints with artificially introduced disbonds to assess their capability to detect bond-line damage under in-plane shear and through-thickness tension. Finite element (FE) models indicated that the presence of the disbond significantly altered the bond-line strain distribution under such loads. The embedded sensors successfully detected this effect, and the sensor measurements compared well to FE predictions. However, the experimental measurements of the magnitude of the strain at the tips of the disbonds showed significant variations, presumably due to its high sensitivity to defect edge conditions which could not be experimentally controlled with a high degree of repeatability. Both the FE models and the experimental results showed that the effect of disbond damage was localised, more so under in-plane shear than through-thickness tension. This would necessitate the use of an optimised sensor array and pattern recognition algorithm for the reliable detection of an arbitrary disbond.     

Compact sensor for measuring two-dimensional tilt using a two-dimensional transmission grating and the Talbot effect

This paper proposes a tilt sensor that measures the small two-dimensional tilt of a plane reflective object using the Talbot effect. It is an extension of a previously proposed one-dimensional tilt sensor. The light beam reflected from the object impinges on a hexagonal grating, and the intensity of the diffracted wave is detected on an image sensor located at a Talbot distance from the grating. The diffraction intensity displaces due to the tilt of the object. The displacement is calculated by the Fourier transform method to obtain the two-dimensional tilt. This sensor is very simple and compact. The principle of the sensor is explained for a grating with a general pattern. An experiment using a hexagonal grating shows its validity. Discussions are given for making it more practical.     

Diffracted wavefront measurement of a volume phase holographic grating at cryogenic temperature

Flatness of the wavefront diffracted by grating can be mandatory for some applications. At ambient temperature, the wavefront diffracted by a volume phase holographic grating (VPHG) is well mastered by the manufacturing process and can be corrected or shaped by postpolishing. However, to be used in cooled infrared spectrometers, VPHGs have to stand and work properly at low temperatures. We present the measurement of the wavefront diffracted by a typical VPHG at various temperatures down to 150 K and at several thermal inhomogeneity amplitudes. The particular grating observed was produced using a dichromated gelatine technique and encapsulated between two glass blanks. Diffracted wavefront measurements show that the wavefront is extremely stable according to the temperature as long as the latter is homogeneous over the grating stack volume. Increasing the thermal inhomogeneity increases the wavefront error that pinpoints the importance of the final instrument thermal design. This concludes the dichromated gelatine VPHG technology, used more and more in visible spectrometers, can be applied as it is to cooled IR spectrometers.     

稀疏矢量阵设计的模拟退火算法

对于均匀间隔线列阵,由采样定理可知,当阵元间距超过信号波长的一半时,指向性图会产生与目标等高的栅瓣。为了获得高分辨率,同时避免栅瓣出现,需要大量的传感器。为了减少设备复杂度,可以采用稀疏布阵技术,以较少的阵元获得较高的分辨力。将模拟退火算法应用到稀疏矢量水听器阵的设计中。通过优化阵元位置控制指向性图,可以获得无栅瓣的指向性图。给出了优化后的稀疏矢量阵与均匀间隔矢量阵的指向性图比较。