Terahertz lenses made by compression molding of micropowders

We present a simple and versatile approach for fabricating terahertz lenses based on compression molding of micropowder polymer materials in a tabletop hydraulic press. To demonstrate the feasibility of this approach, a biconvex lens shape is calculated using a ray-tracing algorithm and lenses based on two different micropowders are fabricated. As the powder materials have different refractive indices, the resulting lenses share the same geometric shape but differ in their respective focal length. The focusing properties of the lenses are evaluated by transversal and sagittal beam profile measurements in a fiber-coupled terahertz time-domain spectroscopy system, confirming the excellent imaging qualities of the compression molded lenses.     

High accuracy dual lens transmittance measurements

We show how to determine the transmittance of short focal length lenses (f approximately 19 mm and f approximately 2 5 mm, in this case) with a combined uncertainty of 3 parts in 10(4) or better by measuring transmittances of lens pairs of a set of three or more lenses with the same nominal focal length. Uncertainties are minimized by optimizing the radiometric design of the setup and the measurement procedure. The technique is particularly useful in systems where the detector acceptance angle limits the beam geometry to relatively collimated beams.     

Electrically switchable holographic liquid crystal/polymer Fresnel lens using a Michelson interferometer

A holographic technique for fabricating an electrically switchable liquid crystal/polymer composite Fresnel lens is reported. A Michelson interferometer is used to produce the required Fresnel pattern, by placing a convex lens into one path of the interferometer. Simplicity of the method and the possibility of fabricating different focal length lenses in a single arrangement are advantages of the method. The performance of the fabricated lens was demonstrated and its electro-optical properties were investigated for its primary focal length.     

Mechanically tunable aspheric lenses via additive manufacture of hanging elastomeric droplets for microscopic applications

Abstract

Mechanically deformable lenses with dynamically tunable focal lengths have been developed in this work. The fabricated five types of aspheric polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS) lenses presented here have an initial focal length of 7.0, 7.8, 9.0, 10.0 and 10.2 mm. Incorporating two modes of operation in biconvex and concave–convex configurations, the focal lengths can be tuned dynamically as 5.2–10.2, 5.5–9.9, 6.6–11.9, 6.1–13.5 and 6.6–13.5 mm respectively. Additive manufacturing was utilized to fabricate these five types of aspheric lenses (APLs) via sequential layering of PDMS materials. Complex structures with three-dimensional features and shorter focal lengths can be successfully produced by repeatedly depositing, inverting and curing controlled PDMS volume onto previously cured PDMS droplets. From our experiments, we empirically found a direct dependence of the focal length of the lenses with the amount (volume) of deposited PDMS droplets. This new mouldless, low-cost, and flexible lens fabrication method is able to transform an ordinary commercial smartphone camera into a low-cost portable microscope. A few microscopic features can be readily visualized, such as wrinkles of ladybird pupa and printed circuit board. The fabrication technique by successively applying hanging droplet and facile mechanical focal-length-tuning set-up can be easily adopted in the development of high-performance optical lenses.     

Alternative method for measuring effective focal length of lenses using the front and back surface reflections from a reference plate

We present a simple method for measuring the effective focal length without determining the location of principle plane of the lens. The method is based on the measurement of confocal backreflection axial responses from the front and back surfaces of a reference plate with known refractive index and thickness. We proved the concept by measuring the effective focal lengths of thin singlet lenses and complex microscope objectives. The theoretical limit of measurement precision varies depending on the numerical aperture of the lens. This method can provide an alternative focal length measurement method for complex lenses or lenses that are permanently attached to other structures. Measurement errors were analyzed theoretically and improvements in measurement accuracy were discussed.     

Fast response varifocal lenses using KTa(1-x)Nb(x)O3 crystals and a simulation method with electrostrictive calculations

We fabricated cylindrical varifocal lenses with fast responses by using the strong Kerr effect of KTa(1-x)Nb(x)O(3) (KTN) single crystals. We observed focus shifts of up to 87 mm with the assistance of a 250 mm focal length lens, which corresponds to a focus shift from infinity to 720 mm by the KTN lens itself. The response time was as fast as 1 μs. We also present a simulation method for calculating refractive index distributions in KTN single crystals, which is essential when designing the lens. The method is characterized by the strain contribution, which has not conventionally been typical of electro-optic simulations. We used this method to explain the refractive index modulations that are characteristic of the varifocal lenses.     

Subharmonic focal-length intensities formed by Fresnel lenses

Binary Fresnel lenses produce focused spots at subharmonics of the principal focal length of the lens. The intensities of these focal spots can be controlled by variation of the relative widths of the rings of the Fresnel lens compared with the spacings between the rings. Theory is presented and experimentalverification is provided with Fresnel lenses written onto the magneto-optic spatial light modulator.     

Correlation between droplet-induced strain actuation and voltage generation in single-wall carbon nanotube films

In this paper, a method of strain actuation of single-walled carbon nanotube (SWNT) films using droplets is examined, and the physical origin of an open-circuit voltage (Voc)-observed across the film during this process-is explored. We demonstrate that droplet actuation is driven by the formation of a capillary bridge between the suspended SWNT films and the substrates, which deforms the films by wetting forces during evaporation. The induced strain is further evaluated and analyzed using dynamic Raman and two-dimensional correlation spectra. Supported by theoretical calculations, our experiments reveal the time and strain dependency of the capillary bridge's midpoint directional movement. This relationship is applied to display the correlation between the induced strain and the measured Voc.     

Measurement of focal length using an optical power meter

This Note shows that the focal length of a lens maybe calculated from the results of three radiometric measurements. The derived expression for focal length is valid for both positive and negative lenses.     

High-performance fluidic adaptive lenses

High-performance fluidic lenses with an adjustable focal length spanning a very wide range (30 mm to infinite) are demonstrated. We show that the focal length, F-number, and numerical aperture can be dynamically controlled by changing the shape of the fluidic adaptive lens without moving the lens position mechanically. The shortest focal length demonstrated is less than 30 mm for a 20-mm lens aperture. The fluidic adaptive lens has a nearly perfect spherical profile and shows a resolution better than 40 line pairs/mm in a plano-convex structure and 57 line pairs/mm in a biconvex structure.     

Magnetic Domains and Twin Boundary Movement of NiMnGa Magnetic Shape Memory Crystals

Time‐resolved metallographic optical microscopy techniques are used together with magnetic domain imaging to clarify the interaction between magnetic domains and twin boundary (TB) motion in magnetic shape memory NiMnGa single crystals. The magnetic field and stress induced magnetic domain formation is imaged by a magneto‐optical indicator film technique. Reversible TB motion is visualized up to high actuation speeds. From domain observation at adjacent crystal surfaces the fundamental volume magnetic processes during strain and field induced TB motions are derived. For magnetic field induced structural reorientations a concurrent absence of magnetic domain wall motion is found. In contrast, for strain induced reorientations processes, a complete rearrangement of the magnetic domain structure by the moving TB is observed. Dynamic actuation experiments on TB motion reveal non‐linear time effects on TB mobility. In addition to training effects, the maximum field induced strain increases with actuation speed. Both effects can be interpreted as the interaction of moving twin boundaries with local non‐fixed defects. The summarized results provide key information for the understanding of the connection of magnetic and crystallographic domains in magnetic shape memory alloys and for the optimization of devices for future technical applications.     

Characteristics of chemo-mechanically driven polyacrylonitrile fiber gel actuators

Pure polyacrylonitrile (PAN) fiber gels, exhibiting effective actuation forces and displacements through muscle-like contractile behavior during the volume change when subjected to environmental stimuli, are prepared by electrospinning, twisting (strand creation) and activation process to investigate performance characteristics of chemo-mechanically driven PAN gel actuators. Single PAN strand (yarn) having a dimension of 210 μm in diameter is used. A typical hysteresis loop is observed for the length change (∼ 38%) of PAN gels with respect to pH variation. Diameter and volume changes are observed as greater than 100% and greater than 720%, respectively, for pH activated systems. Chemically induced force generation of pure PAN fiber gel is completed within a few seconds. The average maximum force is 0.002 N, implying that the force generation of a single PAN filament is 6.7 × 10^{− 6} N. A linear relation between force and strain is observed. It is found that PAN fiber gels in contracted state have stronger force and strain (0.043 N/0.112) than those (0.015 N/0.002) in elongated state. The actuation stress of pure PAN is in the range of moving coil transducer and commercial PAN but the actuation strain is better than moving coil transducer and similar to natural muscle.     

Focal plane position detection with a diffractive optic for shack-hartmann wave-front sensor fabrication

During construction of a Shack-Hartmann wave-front sensor it is critical that the spacing between the lens array and the detector array be equal to the lens array focal length to obtain accurate and precise measurements of a wave front. This separation is often difficult to determine with large f/# lenses, because their focal spot diameter does not change substantially for small displacements on either side of the focal plane. We describe a method with an array of off-axis lens segments for determining the location of the focal plane. Because the lenses are off axis, changes in the distance from the optic to the detector array result in transverse focal spot position variations as a function of their separation from the lenses. By analyzing the focal spot pattern on a CCD, we achieved 12-mum rms error in the axial position measurement while moving a 4-mm-focal-length optic over 1 mm.     

Determination of refractive indices of biconvex lenses by use of a Michelson interferometer

Measurements of lens parameters such as focal length, radius of curvature, and refractive index are important. We describe a measurement method that utilizes a Michelson interferometer to determine parameters of thin, convex lenses. The real fringe system formed by a Michelson interferometer is used to determine the focal lengths and the radii of curvature of the lenses. The refractive index of the lens material is determined from the thin-lens formula. We were able to determine the refractive indices to an accuracy as great as 99.97%. A detailed theoretical and experimental analysis is given.     

Static and dynamic Fresnel zone lenses for optical interconnections

Abstract

Static and dynamic Fresnel zone lenses were fabricated in quartz glass by means of microstructuring techniques. Two types of on-axis and offaxis lenses with different focal lengths and of different apertures were designed to operate at wavelengths of 1·52 μm and 633 nm. The blazed profile of the onaxis and off-axis lenses was approximated by up to 16 and up to four discrete levels respectively. Dynamic, that is electrically switchable, lenses have been realized by filling the structured surface with liquid crystal. The optical properties of the lenses, such as the focal spot sizes and the diffraction efficiencies, were investigated. Further the switching behaviour of the dynamic lenses was studied. The design and fabrication of the static and dynamic, on-and off-axis Fresnel zone lenses as well as their optical and switching properties will be presented.     

Carbon nanotube zoom lenses

We show that convergent or divergent zoom lenses with focal length variations up to approximately 100% can be implemented by growing arrays of carbon nanotubes (CNTs) on curved templates. Unique lenses, which can change their character from divergent to convergent, can also be implemented in this way. Analogously, variable phase shifters with huge phase variation can be fabricated by growing arrays of CNTs on planar templates.     

Fabrication of polymer-based reflowed microlenses on optical fibre with control of focal length using differential coating technique

Thermal reflow of polymer to generate spherical profile has been used to fabricate microlenses in this paper. A simple model based on the volume conservation (before and after reflow) and geometrical consideration of lens profile, shows that the focal length of the microlens produced by reflow technique is a function of the initial geometry of microcylinders, i.e. diameter and thickness. This relationship of focal length with diameter and thickness is used as a basis to control focal length. A simple spin coating technique on dual surface is used to achieve differential thickness, to control the focal length of microlenses produced on the same substrate. A biomedical application of such combination of microlenses is endoscopy where the lenses of varying diameter and equal focal length are needed on top of optical fibre bundles to provide independent function of illumination and imaging. This paper incorporates the differential thickness technique to show a micro fabrication process to produce the polymer reflowed microlenses, with a control of focal length based on thickness. The design also helps to integrate these microlenses on top an optical fibre with accurate alignment.     

Efficient Raman laser system using stimulated Brillouin scattering with different confocal parameters for CH(4)

We report the efficient Raman laser system with the wavelength of 1.54 microm from a passively Q-switched Nd:YAG laser with high-pressure methane gas. It has been known that the stimulated Brillouin scattering (SBS) prevents the Raman conversion. The efficiency of the Raman conversion, however, has been greatly enhanced with a specially designed lens to use a backward-stimulated Brillouin in our scheme. The special lens has a focal length of 12 cm, and a maximum conversion efficiency of 51% has been obtained with the first-Stokes energy of 32 mJ and the residual pump energy of 30 mJ at 1,400 psi. Comparing two resonators with different focal lengths of the lenses, we have found that backward-SBS can be greatly enhanced by use of the shorter focal length of 12 cm, and the enhanced backward-SBS helps to increase the conversion efficiency.     

声透镜波束形成技术

介绍了研发的声线追迹程序和声场计算程序对声透镜波束形成的仿真结果,并与实际的透镜波束形成结果相比较。结果表明,仿真程序能够很好的模拟不同角度的入射声束的聚焦位置、波束宽度以及相对幅度,可以用于声透镜设计,大大减少声透镜制作过程中反复通过实验修改透镜参数的次数。