Degradation of rail-steel structure and properties of the surface layer

The change in the structure–phase states and defect substructure of the rail surface after prolonged operation (passed tonnage of 500 and 1000 million t) is studied by optical microscopy, by scanning and transmission electron diffraction microscopy, and by measurement of the microhardness and tribological characteristics. It is found that the wear rate increases by a factor of 3.0 and 3.4 after passed tonnage of 500 and 1000 million t, respectively, while the frictional coefficient is reduced by a factor of 1.4 and 1.1, respectively. After 500 million t, the cementite plates break down completely, and rounded cementite particles (10–50 nm) are formed. After 1000 million t, the initial stage of dynamic recrystallization is noted. Possible explanations of the observations are discussed. Two competing processes may occur in rail operation: (1) fragmentation of the cementite particles, with their subsequent entrainment in the ferrite grains or plates (in the pearlite structure); (2) fragmentation and subsequent solution of the cementite particles, with transfer of the carbon particles to dislocations (Cottrell atmospheres) and transportation of carbon atoms by dislocations within the ferrite grains (or plates), culminating in the formation of cementite nanoparticles.     

Long-term operation surface changes in differentially quenched 100-m rails

By optical microscopy and transmission electron diffraction microscopy, the evolution of the structural and phase states in the surface layers over a depth of 10 mm in the head of differentially quenched rail (category DT350) is studied, as the rail is subjected to passed tonnage of 691.8 million t at the experimental loop of AO VNIIZhT. In the initial state, the following structural components are present in the rail head: plate-pearlite grains (relative content 0.7); mixed ferrite–carbide grains (0.25); and grains of structure-free ferrite. After experiencing a passed tonnage of 691.8 million t, this state only remains beyond a depth of 10 mm. At that depth, a large quantity of bend extinction contours is observed. That indicates elastoplastic distortion of the material’s crystal lattice. The stress concentrators in the steel are intraphase and interphase boundaries of the ferrite and pearlite grains, cementite and ferrite plates in pearlite colonies, and globular cementite and ferrite particles. Structural transformations are observed at the macro level: microcracks appear, running at acute angles from the surface to a depth of 140 μm; and a decarburized layer is formed. At the micro level, elastoplastic stress fields are formed, and the cementite plates in the pearlite colonies break down. The stress concentrators in that case are intraphase and interphase boundaries of the ferrite and pearlite grains, cementite and ferrite plates in pearlite colonies, and globular cementite and ferrite particles. In structure-free ferrite grains, cementite nanoparticles are formed. The results are compared with the evolution of the structural and phase states at the surface of a recess in bulk-quenched rail as the rail is subjected to gross loads of 500 million t: the transformation of the structural and phase states in the surface layers is more pronounced. Plate pearlite is characterized by solution of the cementite plates. That leads to the formation of chains of globular carbide particles at the sites of the cementite plates. This may be associated with transfer of the carbon atoms from the cementite lattice to dislocations.     

Redistribution of Carbon Atoms in Differentially Quenched Rail on Prolonged Operation

The change in structure, phase composition, and defect substructure in the head of differentially quenched rail after the passage of gross traffic amounting to 691.8 million t is investigated over the central axis, at different distances from the top surface, by means of transmission electron microscopy. The results confirm that prolonged rail operation is accompanied by two simultaneous processes that modify the structure and phase composition of the plate-pearlite colonies: cutting of the cementite plates; and solution of the cementite plates. The first process involves cutting of the carbide particles and removal of their fragments, accompanied simply by change in their linear dimensions and morphology. The second process involves the extraction of carbon atoms from the crystal lattice of cementite by dislocations. That permits phase transformation of the metal in the rail, which is associated with marked relaxation of the mean binding energy of the carbon atoms at dislocations (0.6 eV) and at iron atoms in the cementite lattice (0.4 eV). The stages in the transformation of the cementite plates are as follows: the plates are wrapped in slipping dislocations, with subsequent splitting into slightly disoriented fragments; the slipping dislocations from the ferrite lattice penetrate into the cementite lattice; and the cementite dissolves with the formation of nanoparticles. The cementite nanoparticles are present in the ferrite matrix as a result of their transfer in the course of dislocational slip. On the basis of equations from materials physics and X-ray structural data, the content of carbon atoms at structural elements of the rail steel is assessed. It is found that prolonged rail operation is accompanied by significant redistribution of the carbon atoms in the surface layer. In the initial state, most of the carbon atoms are concentrated in cementite particles. After prolonged rail operation, the carbon atoms and cementite particles are located at defects in the steel’s crystalline structure (dislocations, grain and subgrain boundaries). In the surface layer of the steel, carbon atoms are also observed in the crystal lattice based on α iron.     

Transformation of Carbides in Prolonged Rail Operation

The evolution of the carbide phase in the surface layers of bulk-quenched rails (after the passage of 500 and 1000 million t of traffic) and differentially quenched rails (after the passage of 691.8 million t) to a depth of 10 mm at the central axis of the rail cross section and at the nearby rounded section is studied by transmission electron-diffraction microscopy. The grains of plate pearlite, ferrite–carbide mixture, and structure-free ferrite are analyzed. The carbide phase in the surface layers of the steel changes in two mutually complementary processes during rail operation: (1) cleavage of cementite particles with subsequent entrainment in ferrite grains or plates (in the pearlite structure); (2) cleavage and dissolution of cementite particles, with transfer of carbon atoms to dislocations (in Cottrell atmospheres and in dislocational cores), which transport them to the ferrite grains (or plates), where cementite nanoparticles are formed again. In the previous location of the plates, fragmented dislocational substructure appears. The boundaries of the fragments are found at the positions previously occupied by cementite α-phase boundaries. The solution of cementite is mainly due to the energy of carbon atoms at dislocation cores and subboundaries in comparison with the cementite lattice. The binding energy of the carbon atom and the dislocations is 0.6 eV and the binding energy of the carbon atom and the subboundary is 0.8 eV, as against 0.4 eV for the carbon atom in cementite. Elastoplastic stress fields are formed; their stress concentrators are intra- and interphase boundaries of ferrite and pearlite grains, cementite plates and ferrite of the pearlite colonies, and globular cementite and ferrite particles. Those are also the basic sources of curvature and torsion in the crystal lattice of the rail steel. On approaching the contact surface, the number of stress concentrators increases, and the internal long-range stress fields are of greater amplitude.     

对梁,底组合步进式加热炉半热滑轨的改进实践

介绍了间断式半热滑轨的研制和应用过程，以及经过节能技术改造，用新型半热滑轨代替老式滑轨的使用。实践表明，不但解决了以往的水梁漏水的问题，而且使线Ｃ级品率提高了３．３９％，每年可增产３５００ｔ线材，吨钢热涌单耗降低０．１４ＧＪ，年创经济效益２３９万元。     

5Cr9Si3钢的高温变形行为及流变应力异常变化机理

通过不同热加工参数下的热压缩试验,研究了新型阀门钢5Cr9Si3的高温变形行为.5Cr9Si3钢在850~900℃和1000~1100℃温度区间内峰值应力分别随温度的升高而减小,而在900~1000℃温度区间内出现峰值应力随温度升高而增大的异常现象.进一步的微观组织及相结构演化分析表明:5Cr9Si3钢在900~1000℃温度区间内发生了由铁素体向奥氏体的转变,产生奥氏体相变强化;同时,随着变形温度的提高,碳化物的回溶造成碳元素和铬元素对5Cr9Si3基体固溶强化效果增强.相变强化和固溶强化是导致5Cr9Si3在900~1000℃温度区间内流变应力异常变化的主要原因.      

Interaction of metal matrix with nonmetallic inclusions in rail steel

The stress at the boundary between nonmetallic oxide inclusions and the matrix may be calculated, for different loads, by simulation of the system consisting of the matrix and inclusions. On that basis, the nonmetallic inclusions may be ranked in terms of the risk of contact-fatigue defects. The phase composition and geometry of the nonmetallic inclusions in rail steel are determined by the reduction of the rail steel and are extremely important for high rail performance.     

Effects of lanthanum on hot deformation behaviour of Mn-Cr-Mo bainitic rail steel

Effects of lanthanum(La) as micro-alloying element on the hot deformation behaviour of the high strength Mn-Cr-Mo bainitic rail steel were investigated under a range of deformation conditions. The results indicate that La increases the flow stress by 10-30 MPa through strengthening nanoscale strain induced precipitation(SIP) θ-(Fe,La)3 C during hot deformation. The hot deformation activation energy increases by 10-40 kJ/mol due to the "Zener effect" of SIP and the dynamic recrystallization(DRX) is retarded due to the competitive behaviour between SIP and DRX. Bainite plates in the DRX domain can be refined by adding La, resulting in the improvement of hot workability. The DRX domain with peak power dissipation efficiency of 52% is determined to be the optimal processing region for Mn-Cr-Mo-La bainitic rail steel.     

Nanolayer formation during hydrodynamic instability under external stimuli

Experimental observations regarding the formation of strengthening surface nanostructures under various external stimuli (electroexplosive alloying, electron-beam treatment, thermomechanical strengthening of rolled strip by fast cooling, and intense mechanical treatment in long-term rail operation) are interpreted on the basis of consistent principles. The formation of nanostructures due to unstable equilibrium states in the surface layers (Kelvin–Helmholtz and Marangoni instabilities) is simulated. The corresponding dispersion equations are analyzed, and analytical formulas are derived for the decrement α as a function of the wavelength λ in the micro and nano ranges. The numerical values of the maxima in the α(λ) curve correspond to the experimental parameters of the nanostructures. A physical interpretation is offered.     

钢中摩擦磨损白层的研究现状

综述了国内外对白层的研究现状,指出了当前白层研究中存在的分歧和争论,分析归纳了表面白层的特征和形成机制,重点讨论了钢轨运行过程中白层的组织结构及形成机制,提出了今后的研究方向.同时用扫描电镜对车轮钢切削白层和钢轨钢中的白层进行观察分析.结果表明,车轮钢切削加工和钢轨运行时,表面组织均发生动态的塑性变形和再结晶,原奥氏体晶粒细化,在随后的冷却的过程中形成马氏体.     

980 MPa耐蚀钢轨U68CuCr的开发和应用

通过制定合理成分和铁水脱硫-120 t顶底复吹转炉-吹氩-LF—RH-280 mm×380 mm坯连铸-轧制工艺,开发了980 MPa热轧耐蚀钢轨U68CuCr（/%:0.65~0.75C,0.40~0.80Si,1.00~1.30Mn,≤0.030P,≤0.025S,≤0.50Cu,≤0.50Cr,≤0.05Nb）。试验结果表明,耐蚀钢轨U68CuCr抗拉强度≥1060 MPa,伸长率≥12%,踏面硬度HB值为300~310,珠光体片间距为0.2μm,耐磨性能优于同一强度级别的U75V钢轨。2%NaCl溶液腐蚀试验显示,耐蚀钢轨U68CuCr腐蚀速率为U75V钢轨的57%。在京广线使用3年,通过总重量超过3亿吨,耐蚀钢轨U68CuCr使用性能良好,其各项指标均满足铁路运输要求。     

Operation of imported rail on the East Siberian Railroad

Japanese R65 rail is metallographically analyzed after operation in the East Siberian Railroad. Its chemical composition complies with Technical Specifications TU 0921-239-01124323–2007 for the steel used in the production of 350LDT rail. The macrostructure of the metal is of satisfactory quality. The tensile mechanical properties, hardness, and impact strength at +20°C determined on samples from the nonoperational chamfer of the rail head are consistent with Technical Specifications TU 0921-239-01124323–2007 for the steel used in the production of 350LDT rail. The impact strength at negative temperatures does meet the corresponding requirements. The content of nonmetallic inclusions is low. However, exogenous inclusions are present at unacceptable levels. The microstructure of the Japanese rail sample consists of sorbite and plate pearlite, whose dispersity declines on moving away from the surface. In operation of the rail, thin inclined cracks (depth 1.1 mm) form at the surface of the working chamfer in the rail head; in addition, lateral wear is considerable (up to 15 mm).     

滚动轴承的白色腐蚀裂纹失效

白色腐蚀裂纹(WEC)为不同于经典滚动接触疲劳(RCF)的轴承失效机制,因通常导致轴承早期失效而成为目前最受关注的轴承失效机制之一。对WEC失效与经典RCF的差异进行了概述,并以台架测试研究了多种附加载荷、轴承材料及其热处理和表面涂层对轴承WEC失效寿命的作用,以及钢的洁净度对轴承WEC失效和经典RCF寿命的不同影响。证实了附加载荷是发生WEC失效的必要条件,改善钢的洁净度可显著提高轴承经典RCF寿命,但不能作为提高轴承WEC失效寿命的有效方法。     

Formation of adiabatic shear bands in eutectoid steels in high strain rate compression

A detailed study has been made of the localized adiabatic shear band formation in a plain carbon and a low alloy eutectoid rail steel subjected to high strain rate compression at initial deformation temperature of 298, 453 and 623 K. Localized adiabatic shearing due to impact is found to be favored with alloy steels and decreasing temperatures of deformation. It is shown that the deformed and transformed shear bands rather than being two separate phenomena are only an outcome of the extent of adiabatic strain localization occuring during deformation; the deformed bands forming with lesser localized flow and the transformed bands forming with extensive localized flow. This study explains convincingly the formation of the white phase on the surface of the rail heads during wheel-rail contact as due to the coalescence of the numerous adiabatic shear bands.     

钢轨钢的现状和发展趋势

本文概述了钢轨钢的研究和发展，并论述了各类钢轨网的使用条件，化学成分，组织和力学性能的内在联系。根据重载高速铁路钢轨的特点，提出开发中碳多元合金化的高强度高韧性重轨钢。     

Mechanical Behaviors and Failure Analysis of S38C Steel with Gradient Structure Fabricated by Induction Heating and Quenching

This article proposes a simple and fast method of induction heating and quenching to produce surface gradient structure for S38C steel, and its mechanical behavior and strengthening mechanism are revealed. The variation of the gradient structure from surface to interior is characterized by electron backscatter diffraction, and the tensile behavior of the gradient structure at different depths is acknowledged by the small-scale tensile tests. The gradient structure is tempered martensite microstructure, which significantly improves the hardness and tensile strength of surface and subsurface regions. Accordingly, with the strengthening of the gradient structure, the general tensile strength and fatigue behavior of the S38C steel are increased close to those of high-strength steel. Moreover, the fatigue crack initiation mechanism of the gradient structure is studied by energy dispersive spectroscopy, transmission Kikuchi diffraction, and transmission electron microscope characterization on the crack initiation regions. It reveals that the fatigue failure of the gradient structure can be due to stress concentration on the surface and around subsurface inclusions, and the crack initiation modes present surface crack initiation and internal crack initiation, respectively.     

高强度高韧性贝氏体钢轨研究

采用合金化方法生产的高强度高韧性贝氏体钢轨及道岔,其热轧态抗拉强度大于1 250 MPa,比U75V提高25%;轨腰冲击韧性大于30 J/cm2,比U75V提高3倍以上.介绍了热轧贝氏体钢轨的强化机理、生产工艺及各项检验结果.用贝氏体钢制作的铁路道岔在线路运行已一年半以上,货运量达2亿t,目前仍在使用.在北京铁路局铺设的全贝氏体组合道岔,其使用寿命进一步提高,高强度高韧性贝氏体钢在铁路使用将得到较大的社会和经济效益.     

Analysis on Initial Defects Based on Mechanical State of Meniscus Shell

The meniscus shell plays an important role in slab quality and process operation for continuously cast steel.One decisive reason is initial solidifying shell and growing dendrite under the mechanical stress caused by mold oscillation and liquid steel flow to generate disturbance of casting.The mechanical state of meniscus shell was analyzed using mathematical models in combination with thermo-physical properties and flow rate of steel to shed light on the formation of initial defects.The results show that the mold oscillation is a critical factor on the initial crack formation because the periodic stress makes the shell bending.The formed crack may also expand and propagate due to the following secondary cooling and straightening behavior.The primary dendrite has high possibility to be broken by fluid flow in the solidification front to lead to the non-uniform thickness of solidifying shell.The inter-dendrite bridging is also likely to be formed to produce other internal defects,such as air hole and solute enrichment in the residual molten steel located in the bridging area.     

Growth of the production of rails from continuous-cast semifinished products of electrical steel

Since 2001, the Novokuznetsk Metallurgical Combine has produced 3.0 million tons of R65 railroad rails of continuous-cast steel made in electric furnaces. The combine has significantly improved all the most important quality indices of the steel during this period, and the service life of the rails has increased from 0.5·10⁹ to (0.8–1)·10⁹ tons gross. The combine has mastered the production of rails with superior cold resistance and rails suited of use in high-speed rail systems. It is beginning production of rails with a bainitic structure and rails made of hypereutectoid steels. All these results have been obtained through the construction of new production facilities and modernization of the combine’s existing equipment. Plans for future rail production include extensive reconstruction of the heat-treatment section of the rail-beam shop and reconstruction of the machine-tool bay, the latter involving replacement of part of the equipment. Arc steelmaking furnace No. 1 and two continuous casters will be rebuilt in the electric steelmaking shop. The ultimate goal is to increase the durability and reliability of the rails so as to put them on par with the best rails in the world.     

Effect of heat treatment on microstructure and mechanical properties of duplex stainless steel

Present study concerns the effect of deformation and heat treatment on the microstructure and mechanical properties of a duplex stainless steel. While hot rolling causes the coarse distribution of the constituent phases (ferrite and austenite), 50% cold rolling results into the elongated and splintered two — phase structure. Supersaturated ferrite structure established by water quenching from 1300°C results into the strengthening due to the formation of fine dispersed austenite precipitates within ferrite grain after isothermal heat treatment (1000°C, 0.5 hour). Duplex structure consisting of ferrite and austenite in a fine-grained form is obtained after isothermal heat treatment of cold rolled sample. Cold deformed and heat treated steel exhibits best combination of strength and ductility among all the investigated steel samples.