Promotional policy and perspectives of usage renewable energy in Lithuania

The article outlines renewable energy (RE) sources according to the energy efficiency policy in Lithuania as well as practical experience of implementation of RE projects within the framework of the government policy to promote RES use due to the requirement of the European Union. The main goal of the country is to reduce the import of fossil fuel, to improve environment conditions and to reduce the climate change impact. Analysis of implemented RE projects and forecasts for the future projects are also presented. Most of the efforts in Lithuania were aimed at drafting the biomass (wood chips, wood waste, straw, biogas) and small hydro projects and their subsequent implementation. At present the total capacity of wood-chip-fuelled boilers reached above 251 MW. No serious obstacles can be seen for the extension of wood fuel use. At present, new demonstrational projects have been started covering geothermal energy, solar energy, biogas, biofuels for transport and other. In this time, the RE sources comprise 7.69% of national energy balance. Taking into account feasible resources of RE (it is more than 19.85 TWh/year) and the ongoing implementation of projects it is clear that the share of RE sources will constitute 12–13% of national energy balance in 2010 year. The main factor limiting further growth is high investment costs. The electricity production from local and RE sources in Lithuania is mainly based on hydro energy. At this time the wind energy is not used for this purpose. The electricity production from local and renewable energy sources is about 3.22% of the total consumption.     

Extracting the resource rent from the CDM projects: Can the Chinese Government do better?

The revenue generated from a CDM project in China will be shared by the government and the project owner, and is also subject to the corporate income tax. This paper studies the impacts of the revenue sharing policy and income tax on the CDM market. The economic model presented in this paper shows that higher-cost CDM projects will be more affected by the CDM policies than lower-cost projects. In addition, the majority of CERs will be generated from lower-cost projects. This kind of distribution of CERs across different types of CDM projects, which is in line with the current picture of the CDM market in China, is not consistent with the goal of sustainable development. A simulation shows that a type-by-type tax/fee scheme would be more effective in assisting sustainable development than the current CDM policies. The study also suggests the government use negative tax/fee with the type-by-type scheme to subsidize the CDM projects that generate large sustainability benefits but would otherwise not be developed due to high costs. If all of the revenue from the CDM is recycled, it is estimated that CERs generation will increase by 98.28 MtC, mainly from the CDM projects that have substantial sustainability benefits for the host country.     

A policy study examining the use of imported LNG for gas-fired power generation on the southeast coast of China

Since China's energy demand is growing quickly, speeding up the development of natural gas is an important substitute and supplement for coal and oil. The development of the natural gas market in many developing countries has demonstrated that the success of the whole project hinges upon the success of gas-fired power generation. However, under the current energy pricing system in China, the advantages of gas-fired power plants, such as low investment costs and high efficiency, have not been able to offset the low price of coal. The gas-fired power plants, both at downstream of the Liquefied Natural Gas (LNG) industry and upstream of the power sector, are faced with a dilemma. In order to solve the problems facing gas-fired power projects while providing policy guidance for the future development of gas-fired power projects, the policy of gas-fired power generation using imported LNG on the southeastern coast of China was examined. This study aims to identify the position of the national energy strategy that China should import some LNG from the other countries, to guide the development of energy policy in this region, and to formulate some clear policy measures.     

考虑电力需求侧管理的项目全过程管理评估指标体系及应用

为了促进电力需求侧管理项目的发展,为电力需求侧管理项目管理、规划及投资决策提供依据和指导,建立一个考虑全过程的电力需求侧管理项目管理评估指标体系非常必要。在经济—能源—环境协调发展要求的背景下,从电力需求侧管理项目全过程管理流程及要素出发,结合全过程理论,分析了电力需求侧管理项目管理组织体系、规划决策、启动实施、检测验收阶段的管理评估内容,提出了考虑全过程的电力需求侧管理项目管理评估指标体系,并以某公司电力系统为例,采用层次分析法与多级模糊综合评价方法相结合进行了电力需求侧管理项目全过程管理评估。     

21世纪印度能源外交的战略举措

阐述了印度能源外交新发展,重点涉及印度双边合作与多边合作现状和印度未来能源合作趋势。说明只要印度对联合开发能源抱有诚意,合作的潜力是不可限量的;只要印度继续推进务实性能源外交,印度能源开发将会得到持续加强,并将克服新的挑战。分析了印度能源外交对我国的启示:通过全方位能源外交维护能源安全;与能源生产大国保持长期稳定的供求关系;共享能源信息;提高可再生能源比重。     

需求侧管理是我国电力可持续发展的重要战略选择

进入21世纪,全社会对电力的依赖程度越来越高,对电力供应的质量也提出了更高的要求。一方面社会的发展客观上要求电力工业必须以一定的规模和速度发展,另一方面受资源和环保因素的制约,发展电力工业的问题进一步显现。因此,需求侧管理是我国电力工业可持续发展的战略选择。需求侧管理具有巨大的市场潜力。我国已有实施需求侧管理的经验,到2020年,减少1亿kW的电力装机是可行的。因此我们必须从电力工业可持续发展的高度,从资源利用最优出发,高度重视需求侧管理工作,使得电力需求侧管理在我国电力工业可持续发展中发挥更大的作用。     

Wind farm investment risks under uncertain CDM benefit in China

China has set an ambitious target to increase its wind power capacity by 35 GW from 2007 to 2020. The country’s hunger for clean power provides great opportunities for wind energy investors. However, risks from China’s uncertain electricity market regulation and an uncertain energy policy framework, mainly due to uncertain Clean Development Mechanism (CDM) benefits, prevent foreign investors from investing in China’s wind energy. The objectives of this paper are to: (1) quantify wind energy investment risk premiums in an uncertain international energy policy context and (2) evaluate the impact of uncertain CDM benefits on the net present values of wind power projects. With four scenarios, this study simulates possible prices of certified emissions reductions (CERs) from wind power projects. Project net present values (NPVs) have been calculated. The project risk premiums are drawn from different and uncertain CER prices. Our key findings show that uncertain CDM benefits will significantly affect the project NPVs. This paper concludes that the Chinese government needs revising its tariff incentives, most likely by introducing fixed feed-in tariffs (FITs), and re-examining its CDM-granting policy and its wind project tax rates, to facilitate wind power development and enable China to achieve its wind energy target.     

Toward an effective implementation of clean development mechanism projects in China

With the already huge and growing amount of greenhouse gas emissions and a great deal of low-cost abatement options available, China is widely expected as the world's number one host country of clean development mechanism (CDM) projects. But, making this potential a reality represents a significant challenge for China, because there has been a general lack of awareness by both the Chinese government and business communities, clear institutional structure, and implementation strategy. This has raised great concern about China's ability to compete internationally for CDM projects and exploit fully its CDM potential.

This paper aims to address how CDM projects will be effectively implemented in China by examining the major CDM capacity building projects in China with bilateral and multilateral donors, the treatment of low-cost, non-priority CDM projects, and how a system for application, approval, and implementation of CDM projects is set up in China and what roles the main institutional actors are going to play in the system. We conclude that these capacity building assistances, the establishment of streamlined and transparent CDM procedures and sound governance, and the lessons learned and experience gained from the implementation of the CDM project in Inner Mongolia and the two Prototype Carbon Fund’ projects will help China to take advantage of CDM opportunities. Moreover, in order to further capitalize on its CDM potential, there is a pressing need for the Chinese government to amend its current interim CDM regulations, in particular those controversial provisions on the eligibility to participate in CDM projects in China and the distribution of the revenues derived from CDM project between the project developer and the Chinese government. We believe that taking these capacity building projects and the recommended actions to clearly define the sustainable development objective of the CDM and disseminate CDM knowledge to local authorities and project developers as sectorally and geographically wide as possible, addressing those controversial CDM provisions with clearer guidance, and gaining experience from real practice will reduce the perceived project risks and lower the barriers to CDM project development in China. This is, in turn, likely to lead a much greater percentage of carbon credits to come from CDM projects in China over the next several years.     

GRID-CONNECTED PV SYSTEMS -THE ROLE OF THE UTILITY SECTOR

The development of photovoltaic solar energy (PV) has accelerated in the past decade. On the one hand, the improvements in solar cell types are very promising, while, on the other hand, the market for autonomous (off-grid) applications has grown substantially.

The development of grid-connected PV systems especially in the built-up environment is just starting up, both worldwide and in Europe. The energy losses currently present at system level will be reduced in the following years by implementing and assimilating practical experiments and demonstration projects.

Developments in Europe and some other countries will be described briefly. The interest in PV system developments is increasing and focussing more and more on the electricity utility sector.

It is clear that the utility sector will play an important role in the upscaling of the market for PV in energy supply. It is necessary, therefore, that the utility sector develops a long-term view, with a horizon of at least 25 years, on the role of PV in the energy supply.     

Opportunities and challenges for renewable energy policy in China

Renewable energy is the inevitable choice for sustainable economic growth, for the harmonious coexistence of human and environment as well as for the sustainable development. Government support is the key and initial power for developing renewable energy. In this article, an overall review has been conducted on renewable energy development policy (including laws and regulations, economic encouragement, technical research and development, industrialized support and government model projects, etc.) in China. On this basis, a systematic analysis has been conducted on the disadvantages of renewable energy development policy. On the point of long-term effective system for renewable energy development, a series of policy advice has been offered, such as strengthening the policy coordination, enhancing regional policy innovation, echoing with clean development mechanism, implementing process management, constructing market investment and financing system. It is expected that the above advices could be helpful to ever-improvement of renewable energy development policy.     

Review of US ESCO industry market trends: an empirical analysis of project data

This comprehensive empirical analysis of US energy service company (ESCO) industry trends and performance employs two parallel analytical approaches: a survey of firms to estimate total industry size, and a database of ∼1500 ESCO projects, from which we report target markets and typical project characteristics, energy savings and customer economics. We estimate that industry investment for energy-efficiency related services reached US$2 billion in 2000 following a decade of strong growth. ESCO activity is concentrated in states with high economic activity and strong policy support. Typical projects save 150–200 MJ/m²/year and are cost-effective with median benefit/cost ratios of 1.6 and 2.1 for institutional and private sector projects. The median simple payback time (SPT) is 7 years among institutional customers; 3 years is typical in the private sector. Reliance on DSM incentives has decreased since 1995. Preliminary evidence suggests that state enabling policies have boosted the industry in medium-sized states. ESCOs have proven resilient in the face of restructuring and will probably shift toward selling “energy solutions”, with energy efficiency part of a package. We conclude that appropriate policy support—both financial and non-financial—can “jump-start” a viable private-sector energy-efficiency services industry that targets large institutional and commercial/industrial customers.     

A bright future

“I'm very encouraged to see the current level of interest in renewables and hope that the firm policy directives that are increasingly coming from Government will translate into funding and local action,” says Dr Mary Archer, current president of the UK section of ISES. She explained to Nina Morgan how she believes that growing public awareness combined with government environmental targets will help promote the use and development of renewable energy sources in the UK.     

Global energy security and the implications for the EU

The following article will analyse the global and geopolitical dimensions of the future international energy security and its implications for Europe and the EU-27. In this context, I will discuss to which extent the EU's newly proclaimed “Energy Action Plan” of the EU Spring summit of 2007 and its declared common energy (foreign) policy are a sufficient strategy to cope with the new global and geopolitical challenges. The article concludes the following: (1) The interlinkage between globally designed traditional energy security concepts – that rely just on economic factors and “market-strategies” – and domestic as well as regional political stability demands new thinking with regard to both energy supply security and foreign and security policies. (2) Although after the Russian–Ukrainian gas conflict in January 2006, energy security has forced its way up the European energy and foreign policy agendas, the EU-27 member states have largely failed to forge a coherent European energy security and energy foreign policy strategy after their Spring summit of 2007 because its declared political solidarity has been still lacking. But the 2nd Strategic Energy Review of November 2008 has recommended new initiatives to overcome this lack by promoting concrete infrastructure and other projects for enhancing Europe's supply security and its political solidarity as part of a common energy (foreign) policy. If the EU is able to implement the March 2007 and November 2008 decisions, the EU oil and gas demand will drastically reduce and freeze at current levels. In this case, Putin's energy policies by using Russia's energy resources and pipeline monopolies as a political instrument to enforce its economic and geopolitical interests will be proved as self-defeating in Russia's long-term strategic interests. It will reduce Gazprom's gas exports to a much smaller EU gas market than originally forecasted as the result of a deliberate EU policy of decreasing its overall gas demand and by diversifying its gas imports.     

System failure,innovation policy and patents: Fuel cells and related hydrogen technology in Norway 1990–2002

The empirical focus of this article is technological innovation activities in the emerging field of fuel cells and related hydrogen technology in Norway from 1990 to 2002. In this period, four comparatively large-scale research and development projects and a number of smaller projects aimed at development of fuel cells technology were undertaken, resulting in many inventions that were subsequently patented. Although this creativity may be considered an indication of success, only one of the projects became successful in an innovation perspective. All the large projects were initiated and funded for divergent political and economic reasons. An important reason in the late 1980s was the prospect of using Norway's abundant supply of natural gas in fuel cells for electric power generation. The large R&D projects that attempted to develop fuel cells based on natural gas as energy source failed. In contrast, the successful project was undertaken by military R&D, i.e. in a different system of innovation than the projects that failed. Analysis of these cases points to the importance of a systemic approach to innovations—and to policy making. One challenge for policy makers is to decide how they should promote this development which is crucial for the vision of a future “Hydrogen Economy”, i.e. what kind of policy incentives should be introduced to spur efficiency in technological development and diffusion. Theoretically, many options are available; however, understanding the innovation dynamics in this sector is fundamental for making choices. In this article, focus will be set on policy aspects using an innovation systemic approach to analyze development of fuel cells and related hydrogen technology in Norway.     

对联合国EB理事会拒绝和撤销中国CDM项目注册原因的研究和思考——关于有效电量问题的研究

随着清洁发展机制(CDM)在中国的广泛深入开展,在申报项目的咨询、审核和注册过程中,也开始出现各种各样有关论证方面的问题。截至EB第53次会议前,联合国EB理事会共拒绝和撤销中国CDM项目38个,其中水电类项目15个,很多涉及到有效电量的论证问题。将7个被拒绝和撤销的项目与7个成功注册的项目进行对比分析可以看出,项目注册失败是因"发电量和有效供电量差异"问题所致,该问题是由PDD文件的编写引发的;DOE对有效电量的论证方向和某些认识及结论是错误的;EB原则上不愿也不会为"人为的低效率(水电)项目"埋单。进一步研究表明,DOE和项目业主方面引述行业标准SL16—95修订版对有效电量问题进行证明是错误和无效的。在回答关于装机容量问题时,应说明是按照最大发电量来设计的,而有效供电量是考虑有效电量等因素后计算的。当前必须正视CDM项目咨询和认证机构的自身能力建设问题,提高咨询和认证的整体水平。EB理事会在制定相关发展战略和策略时,应当更多地考虑符合未来发展方向的战略以及如何最大限度地利用社会有限的自然资源和经济资源。     

RE in schools: Learning the lessons of small scale renewables

Small-scale renewable energy schemes will play a vital role in achieving environmental targets, tackling climate change and mitigating against dwindling natural resources. However, finance is a big issue for many schools and homeowners so the continuation of grant funding will remain necessary to deliver these small-scale renewable energy projects. Grants also ‘prime the pump’ and stimulate future market growth, which ultimately will create the lower costs associated with a mass market.     

A review of the biogas industry in China

This article presents an overview of the development and future perspectives of the Chinese biogas industry. The development of the industry has the potential to improve the rural environment and produce significant amounts of sustainable energy for China. Barriers to the development are the relatively weak environmental policies, imperfect financial policies and lack of long-term follow-up services. The rapid economic development of China has also seen a development in the scales of biogas plants constructed. Although the technology has been improved, this review has identified problems in the construction and operation of Chinese biogas plants, particularly in the efficiency of household systems. All levels of China's government acknowledge this and recent biogas projects have more focus on quality and less on the quantity. The intention is to gradually introduce stricter environmental policies, to provide better service systems, improve the financial policies that support the construction and follow-up service of biogas projects, promote the use of standardized engineering equipment and materials and standards for plant construction and production. This will promote the development of biogas projects at various scales further, and reduce the dependency on fossil fuels and emissions of greenhouse gases.     

The U.S. DOE least-cost utility planning program

This paper deals with the most significant accomplishments of recent projects sponsored by the U.S. Department of Energy's Least-Cost Utility Planning Program. This overview, with its accompanying bibliography, is designed to make the resources of these projects, completed in 1989, widely accessible to utility planners and regulators. The most significant contributions of the projects relate to three areas:

1. (1) DSM technology assessments and database development,

2. (2) assessments of current planning methods and future policy directions, and

3. (3) consensus building and the development of organizational structures to support least-cost planning.

     

Bioenergy transition in rural China: Policy options and co-benefits

This paper reviews the current situation of bioenergy development in China, particularly on its relationship to sustainable rural development. It argues that the current government strategy, investment policy and industrial interest are over-emphasized on biomass-burning power generation as part of the clean energy development trajectories, which may not lead to the most cost-effective outcomes in terms of investments, resource use and social development objectives. It points out that there are large potentials in developing and disseminating household-based biomass technologies in rural areas, especially with energy-efficient modern biomass stoves, which can produce far more economic, social and environmental benefits than biomass power plants. It is a decentralized solution to use renewable energy resources for meeting multi-objectives. It is suggested that key incentive policies be provided by the government to encourage this technological transition, or the leapfrogging from using traditional household stoves towards modern biomass stoves, which will lead to a win–win situation in global, regional and local environmental protection, sustainable resource management and related social benefits, particularly for the poor in remote communities. Six policy recommendations are made: (1) financial schemes development; (2) preferable tax and carbon tax; (3) regulatory policy reform; (4) service industry support; (5) market research, training and capacity building for key stakeholders; (6) development of methodologies and standards for CDM projects. The potential co-benefits brought up by this massive biomass technology transition will bring new perspectives to realizing Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) and global CO₂ emissions reduction targets in China, and also set an example to other developing countries.