Design and mechanical property analysis of ultrafine grained gears from AA5083 previously processed by equal channel angular pressing and isothermal forging

In this present study, the isothermal forging of two different gears is carried out from material previously deformed by the severe plastic deformation (SPD) process known as Equal Channel Angular Pressing (ECAP). At present, there are only a few studies which use this material predeformed that exhibits improved mechanical properties as a result of the SPD process for use in subsequent processes or applications. The design and optimization of the die geometry required for the isothermal forging of gears are shown and both microhardness and microstructure are compared when these forged gears are obtained from annealed material (N0) and ECAP-processed material (N2). With this present research work, it is demonstrated that there is an improvement in forgeability and microhardness as well as a decrease in the grain size of the material predeformed by SPD.     

Effects of grain size on compressive behaviour in ultrafine grained pure Mg processed by equal channel angular pressing at room temperature

Ultrafine-grained pure magnesium with an average grain size of 0.8 μm was produced by refining coarse-grained (980 μm) ingot by multi-pass equal channel angular pressing (ECAP) at room temperature with the application of a back pressure. The compressive deformation behaviour at room temperature depended on grain size, with deformation twinning and associated work hardening observed in coarse-grained Mg, but absent in the ultrafine grained material as decreasing grain size raised the stress for twinning above that for dislocation slip. The ultrafine grained Mg showed good plasticity with prolonged constant stress after some initial strain hardening.     

Fatigue properties of ultrafine grained low carbon steel produced by equal channel angular pressing

Ultrafine grained low carbon (0.15 wt.% C) steel produced by equal channel angular pressing (ECAP) was tested for investigating fatigue properties, including cyclic softening and crack growth rate. Emphasis was placed on investigating the effect of load ratio on the fatigue crack growth rates of ultrafine grained microstructure. The ECAPed steel exhibited cyclic softening. After the first cycle, the tension and compression peak stresses decreased gradually with the number of cycles. Fatigue crack growth resistance and the threshold of ECAPed ultrafine grained steel were lower than that of an as-received coarse grained steel. This was attributed to a less tortuous crack path. The ECAPed steel exhibited slightly higher crack growth rates and a lower ΔK_th with an increase in R ratio. The R ratio effect on growth rates and ΔK_th was basically indistinguishable at a lower load ratio (R>0.3) compared with other alloys, indicating that the contribution of the crack closure vanished. This was explained by the fact that finer grained materials produce a lower opening load P_op due to a relatively less serrated crack path. Consequently, K_min can reach K_op readily with a smaller increment of load ratio. The crack growth rate curve for the ECAPed ultrafine grained steel exhibited a linear extension to the lower growth rate regime than that for the coarse grained as-received steel. This behavior can be explained by a reverse crack tip plastic zone size (r_p) that is always larger than the grain size.     

Microstructure and mechanical properties of Al-7075 alloy processed by equal channel angular pressing combined with aging treatment

In order to examine the combined effect of plastic deformation and aging process, the Al 7075 alloy was subjected to equal channel angular pressing (ECAP) deformation by route B_C in various ECAP and aging conditions: pre-ECAP aging, post-ECAP aging and dynamic aging during ECAP at 393 K and 423 K. Followed by ECAP and aging treatment, Vickers microhardness and tensile test were performed and microstructural observations were undertaken using transmission electron microscopy (TEM) and X-ray diffractometer (XRD). TEM investigation showed that ultrafine-grained (UFG) materials with grain size less than 500 nm could be obtained after three or four passes of ECAP. Precipitates characterization revealed that maximum mechanical properties are achieved when the microstructure mainly consists of fine dispersion of small η^′ precipitates and minor quantities of GP zones. Dynamic aged specimens at 393 K and 423 K represented maximum and minimum mechanical properties, respectively, due to formation of fine η^′ precipitates plus GP zones and η^′ plus η precipitates, respectively. Dynamic aging during ECAP at 393 K appeared preferable to other procedures for attaining maximum mechanical properties as well as saving time and energy.     

Ultrahigh strength steel wires processed by severe plastic deformation for ultrafine grained microstructure

Abstract

A comprehensive review of recent literature on high strength, fine grained steels has been conducted. While relevant technologies in alloy design, processing and heat treating are included in the present review, the emphasis has been on high carbon steel wire processing technology that can be achieved with ‘conventional’ wire rolling and drawing processes. The thermomechanical processing of a pearlitic microstructure, followed by cold drawing, is recommended as the process of choice to efficiently produce an ultrafine grained ferrite–cementite microstructure for ultrahigh strength, ultrahigh carbon steel wires.     

Formation of ultrafine grained ferrite during thermomechanical treatment in microalloyed steel

Abstract

In the present work, the formation of ultrafine grained ferrite has been studied by applying suitable thermomechanical treatment. A high amount of deformation (～80%) at varying strain rates (0·01–10 s^?1) was applied in the temperature range of Ar₃ to Ac₃ followed by water quenching. This treatment resulted in a two-phase ferrite–martensite microstructure as compared to fully martensite structure after quenching without deformation. The formation of ultrafine ferrite (?3 μm) during deformation was favourable at a lower temperature and a slower strain rate. A maximum ～50% ferrite formed during deformation at 780°C with a strain rate of 0·01 s^?1. Experimental rolling with a high strain (～1·3) with finish rolling temperature just above Ar₃ (～750°C) resulted in fine ferrite–pearlite of ?3 μm, and the properties showed a high value of strength as compared to steels rolled in a conventional way. Dual phase microstructure (ferrite and martensite) was produced after partial austenisation to 780°C followed by quenching in water, and this resulted in an excellent combination of properties (high ultimate tensile strength, low yield strength/ultimate tensile strength, high elongation and high n values).     

Exceptional superplasticity in an AZ61 magnesium alloy processed by extrusion and ECAP

Experiments were conducted on a commercial AZ61 alloy to evaluate the potential for achieving an ultrafine grain size and superplastic ductilities through the use of the EX-ECAP two-step processing procedure of extrusion plus equal-channel angular pressing. The results show that EX-ECAP gives excellent grain refinement with grain sizes of 0.6 and 1.3 μm after pressing at 473 and 523 K, respectively. The alloy processed by EX-ECAP exhibits exceptional superplastic properties including a maximum elongation of 1320% after pressing through four passes when testing at 473 K with an initial strain rate of 3.3 × 10⁻⁴ s⁻¹. This result compares with an elongation of 70% achieved in the extruded condition without ECAP under similar testing conditions.     

Microstructural Evolution and Thermal Stability of Ultra-fine Grained Al-4Mg Alloy by Equal Channel Angular Pressing

Experiments were conducted to evaluate the grain refinement and thermal stability of ultra-fine grained Al-4Mgalloy introduced by equal-channel angular pressing (ECAP) at 473 K. The results show that the intensities of X-ray(111/222) and (200/400) peaks for the alloy processed by ECAP decrease significantly and the peak widths of halfheight become broadening compared with the corresponding value in the annealed alloy. The microstructure of 2passes ECAPed alloy consists of both elongated and equiaxed subgrains. The residual strain in the alloy increaseswith increasing passes numbers, that appears as increasing dislocation density and lattice constant of matrix. Anequiaxed ultra-fine grained structure of～0.2μm is obtained in the present alloy after 8 passes. The ultra-fine grainsare stable below 523 K, because the alloy retains extremely fine grain size of～1μm after static annealing at 523 Kfor 1 h.     

Superplasticity of Mg-Zn-Y alloy containing quasicrystal phase processed by equal channel angular pressing

Equal channel angular pressing (ECAP) has been conducted on as-cast Mg-4.3 wt.%Zn-0.7 wt.%Y Mg alloy containing quasicrystal phase at a temperature of 623 K. After 8 ECAP passes, the grain size of the as-cast alloy is decreased from ∼ 120 to ∼ 3.5 μm, and the coarse eutectic quasicrystal phases are broken and dispersed in the alloy. Tensile testing has been performed on the ECAPed Mg-Zn-Y alloy at temperatures of 523 K and 623 K with initial strain rates from 1.5 × 10^− 3 to 1.5 × 10^− 4 s^− 1. The ECAPed alloy exhibits a maximum elongation of about 600% when testing at 623 K using an initial strain rate of 1.5 × 10^− 4 s^− 1. Grain boundary sliding is considered to be the dominant deformation mechanism of the Mg-Zn-Y alloy in the temperature and strain-rate range investigated.     

An experimental verification of the finite element modelling of equal channel angular pressing

Strain hardening of pure copper and friction between the sample and die channels is considered for finite element modelling. To validate the FEM results, the FEM calculated effective strain variations were compared with the hardness measurements. Simulated load–stroke curve and peak load calculations were also compared with the experimentally recorded load–stroke curve and peak load. Different stages of the load–stroke curve of the ECAP process was explained in detail. In over all, good conformity is observed between the FEM calculations and experimental results.     

Microstructure and mechanical behavior of ECAP processed AZ31B over a wide range of loading rates under compression and tension

In this work, a commercial magnesium alloy, AZ31B in hot-rolled condition, has been subjected to severe plastic deformation via four passes of equal channel angular pressing (ECAP) to modify its microstructure. Electron backscatter diffraction (EBSD) was used to characterize the microstructure of the as-received, ECAPed and mechanically loaded specimens. Mechanical properties of the specimens were evaluated under both compression and tension along the rolling/extrusion direction over a wide range of strain rates. The yield strength, ultimate strength and failure strain/elongation under compression and tension were compared in detail to sort out the effects of factors in terms of microstructure and loading conditions. The results show that both the as-received alloy and ECAPed alloy are nearly insensitive to strain rate under compression, and the stress–strain curves exhibit clear sigmoidal shape, pointing to dominance of mechanical twinning responsible for the plastic deformation under compression. All compressive samples fail prematurely via adiabatic shear banding followed by cracking. Significant grain size refinement is identified in the vicinity of the shear crack. Under tension, the yield strength is much higher, with strong rate dependence and much improved tensile ductility in the ECAPed specimens. Tensile ductility is even much larger than the malleability under compression. This supports the operation of 〈c + a〉 dislocations. However, ECAP lowers the yield and flow strengths of the alloy under tension. We attempted to employ a mechanistic model to provide an explanation for the experimental results of plastic deformation and failure, which is in accordance with the physical processes under tension and compression.     

铸态AZ81镁合金ECAP态组织与性能研究

采用自制的90°模具,经Bc路径在温度为300℃下研究对比了铸态及不同道次的等通道挤压(ECAP)态AZ81镁合金微观组织和力学性能.结果表明ECAP随着挤压道次的增加,AZ81镁合金显微组织和力学性能发生显著变化.当挤压到4道次,平均晶粒尺寸由原来铸态的145um细化为9.6um,拉伸断口韧窝明显增多;抗拉强度从180 MPa提高到306 MPa,延伸率和硬度分别达到15.8%和142HL.分析表明,AZ81镁合金在高温挤压过程中Mg17Al12相粒子被破碎,并部分溶入基体,$-Mg基体与%-Mg17Al12相互相阻碍其晶粒长大,获得细小晶粒组织.     

Mechanical properties of a two-phase alloy Mg–8%Li–1%Al processed by equal channel angular pressing

The microstructural evolution and room temperature tensile properties of Mg–8%Li–1%Al alloy processed by equal channel angular pressing (ECAP) at 403 K were investigated. It was found that the strength could be improved pass by pass. The elongation-to-failure decreased dramatically after the first ECAP pass, but could be improved pass by pass during the subsequent ECAP procedure. The microstructure analysis gave the explanations for these phenomena.     

Microstructure and mechanical properties of Mg–Zn–Ca alloy processed by equal channel angular pressing

An ultrafine-grained (UFG) Mg–5.12 wt.% Zn–0.32 wt.% Ca alloy with an average grain size of 0.7 μm was produced by subjecting the as-extruded alloy to equal channel angular pressing (ECAP) for 4 passes at 250 °C. The fine secondary phase restricted the dynamic recrystallized (DRXed) grain growth during the ECAP processing, resulting in a remarkable grain refinement. A new texture was formed in the ECAPed Mg alloy with the {0 0 0 2} plane inclined at an angle of 58° relative to the extrusion direction. The yield stress (YS) was decreased in the as-ECAPed alloy with finer grains, indicating that the texture softening effect was dominant over the strengthening from grain refinement. The ductility of the as-ECAPed alloy was increased to 18.2%. The grain refinement caused an obvious decrease in work hardening rate in the as-ECAPed alloy during tensile deformation at room temperature.     

Effect of SPD and friction stir welding on microstructure and mechanical properties of Al-Cu-Mg-Ag sheets

Ultrafine grained (UFG) structure with an average grain size of ~ 0.6 μm was produced in sheets of Al-Cu-Mg-Ag alloy by equal channel angular pressing (ECAP) followed by hot rolling (HR) at 250 °C. These sheets were joined by friction stir welding (FSW) with efficiency of about unity. The effect of severe plastic deformation (SPD), FSW and heat treatment on the microstructure and mechanical properties of the welds and sheets was examined.     

应用等通道转角挤压(ECAP)技术制备超细晶钛合金

等通道转角挤压(equal channel angular pressing,ECAP)是一种强塑性变形技术,能有效细化材料的微观组织,提高材料性能,改善难变形材料的成形性.简述了ECAP技术制备超细晶钛合金的原理和技术现状,分析了不同工艺参数对钛合金ECAP变形过程和材料性能的影响以及晶粒细化的微观机制.     

Orientation dependencies of mechanical response, microstructure and texture evolution in hot compression of AZ31 magnesium alloy processed by equal channel angular extrusion

The anisotropic mechanical behavior during hot compression of an AZ31 Mg alloy processed by equal channel angular extrusion (ECAE) was evaluated and then discussed in correlation with the concurrent microstructure and texture evolution. The results revealed apparent orientation-dependencies in the mechanical responses, microstructure, and texture development in uniaxial compression along two perpendicular directions. Compression along the transverse direction (TD) led to a higher hardening rate, higher peak stress, and earlier softening than those obtained in compression along the extrusion direction (ED). This can be attributed to the differences in the initial textures prior to compression along the two directions, which led to a more significant contribution of tensile twinning at the early stage of straining and consequently more extensive dynamic recrystallization in loading along TD than along ED. These results suggest that the deformation behavior in compressive loading of the ECAE-processed Mg alloy is highly anisotropic, which needs to be taken into account in their applications.