Path-dependency in public–private partnership in French urban renewal

Public–private partnership in urban renewal in France concerns mainly housing, transport infrastructure and large public facilities. The distinction between public, private and civil actors does not concern social and economic development. This situation tends to limit the integration of different issues and approaches in renewal projects. Also, French urban renewal projects do not produce a new type of partnership between public and private actors and the regulatory framework. These projects remain publicly dominated policy-making procedures because of the uneven distribution of resources and assets and despite a policy discourse emphasising the need for a new division of work between state, market and civil society. The current French situation cannot be understood without bearing in mind the history of urban planning policies in France. Using a historical analysis and the path-dependence approach, we highlight the resilience of inherited structures of interaction between public and private actors.     

Actor strategies in decentralized policy networks

Due to the high density and variety of organizational policy networks involved, urban renewal requires a complex decision-making process. The complexity of the process resides in its inherent uncertainty and dynamics and therefore its unpredictability, and in the interrelatedness of the interventions. In this context, a shift in responsibility has taken place in the Netherlands as a result of which urban renewal is no longer determined by national government but by local planning authorities in conjunction with public and private players. This corresponds to a situation in which the role of the public sector is becoming increasingly characterized by the notion of governance. On the basis of a confrontation of theoretical insights and empirical data, this text analyses the roles and (steering) ambitions of different actors in this new situation. Two case studies of urban renewal processes in Amsterdam and Rotterdam are used to illustrate the complexity of urban renewal processes and the way in which this can be addressed through the formulation of a common problem definition.     

The lost history of urban renewal

Contrary to common understanding, the US government's policy of “urban renewal” was conceived as an alternative policy to slum clearance. Bitterly opposed to public housing, conservative housing‐industry trade associations sought a way to reform the urban redevelopment formula of clearance and public housing established in the Housing Act of 1949. In the early 1950s, the industry groups seized on citizens' neighborhood fix‐up efforts, particularly the Baltimore Plan, to conduct a national campaign to popularize code enforcement, rehabilitation, and private low‐cost housing development as methods to restore and stabilize city neighborhoods. At conferences organized by House and Home magazine and in the President's Advisory Committee on Government Housing Policies and Programs, the housing industry associations fashioned policies, now named “urban renewal,” which were codified in the Housing Act of 1954. But private industry's venture in urban policymaking failed in implementation. Home builders proved reluctant to participate in the new programs, public housing hung on, and hundreds of thousands of homes fell to the wrecking ball. As urban renewal became synonymous with slum clearance, neighborhoods continued to decline. In the end, ironically, housing rehabilitation reemerged as a populist tool for reviving the inner city.     

Model industrial settlements and their continuing governance

This paper explores the continuing governance of three important historical industrial company towns that were developed as model settlements: New Lanark and Saltaire in the UK and Pullman in the United States. It explores the changing roles of the private sector, the public sector and civil society in the on-going stewardship of the settlements.

This paper concludes that urban governance arrangements are important. In all three cases, the towns were initiated by private entrepreneurs but they are no longer in the ownership of the originating companies and their original economic base has vanished. In all three, public sector action was, at some stage, necessary to retain their integrity, but this action needed strong support from civil society actors. In all three examples, government and community action were supported by additional private sector initiatives. The interactions amongst the private sector, the public sector and civil society in the establishment and continuing stewardship of these settlements demonstrate the clear need for a better understanding of the role of governance arrangements in urban history.     

The private sector and public space in Dutch city centres

Private sector involvement in the design and financing of urban redevelopment projects has been relatively rare in the Netherlands. The public sector has traditionally played a central role in spatial planning and development. Since the 1980s, however, local authorities have been sharing the responsibility for urban development with the private sector. This article explores the viability of claims drawn from the literature about the effects of private sector involvement in redeveloped public space. Confronting those claims with our empirical material, we expected to find that the participation of the private sector would increase the redevelopment budget but would also lead to restrictions on public access. These two expectations are evaluated in light of the experience in four redeveloped squares in four Dutch cities: Rotterdam, Dordrecht, Enschede and ’s-Hertogenbosch. We found that actors on the public and private sides have different interpretations of what constitutes a direct financial contribution. Those from the private sector believe they have made significant contributions, while those from the public sector see themselves as the sole funders. But they agree on the issue of free access: both public and private actors deny any negative effects of private sector involvement in this respect.     

Towards Post-Anthropocentric Cities: Reconceptualizing Smart Cities to Evade Urban Ecocide

ABSTRACT

This short piece acts as a coda to this journal’s special issue on “Smart Cities and Innovative Technologies.” First, it provides a retrospective view of the origins of the smart city concept. The paper, secondly, presents the most recent perspectives on the new interpretations of the smart city notion. It then provides a commentary on the potential directions for a better reconceptualization of smart cities to evade a most likely urban ecocide. Lastly, the short communication concludes by asking two critical questions: (a) Will urban scholars, planners, designers, and activists be able to convince urban policymakers and the general public of the need for a post-anthropocentric urban turnaround? (b) How do the public, private, and academic sectors along with communities pave the way for post-anthropocentric cities and more-than-human futures?     

小广场大战略＊--上海袖珍广场设计思考

城市公共空间是城市生活的舞台,也是城市设计的核心领域。良好的城市公共空间对于促进社会交往,展示城市形象特征,构建安全、舒适的城市生活具有重要价值。2013年上海以“袖珍广场”为题,组织设计竞赛,在用地紧张的中心城区建立服务于城市生活的公共空间,提供市民休闲、活动、交流的“城市客厅”。介绍清华大学在小广场竞赛设计中对上海城市公共空间的一些思考,藉此探讨公共空间如何在城市发展中发挥积极作用,提升城市物质空间和社会空间品质。     

Towards a territorialized approach to urban renewal: A comparison of policies in France and the Netherlands

Urban renewal is an important objective of public policies in France and in the Netherlands. In both countries, central government involvement in urban renewal is evolving from direct intervention through sectoral subsidies, towards a “territorialized” policy. Funding for urban renewal is made available for local planning authorities in contracts with central government. These contracts are based on territorial strategies elaborated at the local level. This takes place in a context where the role of the public sector is changing. Local planning authorities become more autonomous and depend to a lesser extent on central government. At the same time, they develop a more businesslike approach towards co-operation with private bodies. In this article, the evolution of urban renewal policies in France and the Netherlands is examined within this context. It appears that in both countries, a territorialized approach towards urban renewal is found to be adequate. However, important questions remain unanswered regarding the appropriate level of public intervention, its legitimacy, the division of risks and rewards among partners in urban renewal projects, and the capacity of local planning authorities.     

Urban design based on public safety—Discussion on safety-based urban design

Because of public safety problems in construction of urban surroundings, this paper expounds the necessity of the study on public safety-based urban design in perspective of modern city. It brings forward the concept of safety-based urban design and attempts to explore the basic connotation and contents with framework for studies. __________ Translated from Architecture Journal, 2008, (5): 38–42 [译自: 建筑学报]     

城市更新公众参与的动力机制探讨

从我国城市更新的现状出发,研究我国城市更新中公众参与的实践情况,从而对我国城市更新公众参与的动力机制进行研究,总结出我国城市更新公众参与的内在动力和外在推力,从而做出我国城市更新中必须开展公众参与的结论。     

Urban improvement districts in urban restructuring – first results of the German ESG research initiative

Local property owner's associations (Eigentuemerstandortgemeinschaften (ESG)) are a new approach to implementing public–private partnership in urban redevelopment. The approach focuses on smaller landlords in residential areas, providing incentives for the modernization of real estate if their local associations work cooperatively for the revitalization of their neighbourhood. The research initiative consists of 14 model projects spread throughout Germany, which test this relatively informal urban redevelopment approach. The article considers public–private partnership initiatives in the context of stagnating federal financial assistance for urban redevelopment and provides new financing tools such as endowment funds. This article presents first results and suggestions for the continuation of model projects beyond the pilot stage.     

深圳市罗湖旧城改造观念演变的反思

罗湖旧城更新所进行的规划和建设 ,其演变经历了三个阶段 :保护与改造共存、大规模改造和改造与保护并重。在深刻分析旧城改造过程中各级城市建设主管部门、技术服务部门、开发商的各自作用的基础上 ,阐述了政府机构、开发商、社会公众和城市规划师在旧城更新过程中所扮演的不同角色     

浅谈我国旧城更新中的公众参与问题

通过对公众参与在城市规划中的兴起以及发展状况研究,结合我国旧城更新现状和存在的问题,借鉴国外公众参与旧城更新的成功经验,阐述了当今公众参与在我国旧城更新中的必要性,并进一步提出了加强旧城更新中公众参与的建议。     

读Robert Fishman《世纪转折点的美国大城市》及其对我国城市发展的几点思考

基于美国权威学术刊物的资料,介绍了过去50年影响美国城市发展的10大因素,它们是:①1956年全美高速公路法案和机动车迅速增长;②联邦政府住房管理按揭投资计划;③中心城市的工业疏散;④市中心再开发和公共住房项目;⑤可大规模生产的郊区装配式住宅;⑥城市和郊区的种族隔离和工作歧视;⑦封闭式大型购物中心;⑧"阳光带"模式的蔓延;⑨空调;⑩1960年代的城市暴乱.美国在过去50年城镇化发展的历史经验和教训,虽然因其所处时代和国情与我国有诸多不同,但是其中也有一些对正处于城镇化进程关键阶段的我国城市规划和建设,具有一定的借鉴价值.     

Urban Space Production in Transition: The Cases of the New Urban Areas of Hanoi

In recent decades, hundreds of master-planned new urban areas (NUAs) have developed on the urban fringes of expanding cities in Vietnam. They are promoted as a new urban planning concept in the post-reform policies. This article discusses the NUAs' planning concepts based on qualitative case studies of four NUAs in Hanoi, and on an examination of the 1990–2000 urban policies. It sheds light on transitional planning and urban space production processes in Vietnam and discusses urban quality in a rapidly urbanising Asian context. The article argues that NUAs are products of a hybrid, transitional system in which local government and the public sector form an alliance with the private sector to serve private interests in urban development. At the same time, NUAs are hybrid products of government-led, entrepreneur-driven planning and self-organising space production by the residents. The self-organising space production activities contribute to the urban quality of these new urban spaces, while the production of privatised, commodified spaces by corporate actors poses a threat to community life.     

Partnerships and networks: The governance of urban regeneration in Britain

Urban regeneration in Britain has often been described as being ‘market-led’. However, such a characterisation does justice neither to the complexity of urban policy over the past 25 years, nor to the changes that have taken place in the same period. Nevertheless, since the beginning of the 1980s partnership with the private sector – however the concept has been understood – has been a vital ingredient of the regeneration process. What is striking is the way that the will to involve the private sector has had a profound impact on local governance. This paper outlines the evolution of urban regeneration in the context of evolving urban policy since 1979. It traces the approach adopted by the Conservative government in the 1980s, specifically through the use of Urban Development Corporations; it examines the change of heart in the early 1990s that preceded the coming into power of a Labour administration; and it looks at the experience of urban regeneration under the leadership of Tony Blair. It explores the changing role of key actors within the process, and the way in which urban local government has responded to the evolution of national policy. The case of Sheffield is used to illustrate the general theme of changing national policy.     

The ambiguity of urban renewal in France: Between continuity and rupture

The term urban renewal was introduced in France in the Loi solidarité et renouvellement urbains (Loi SRU) of December 13th, 2000. Until then, terms like renovation, reconstruction, recycling or refurbishment were used to indicate similar phenomena. Is the introduction of a new term only an innovation in vocabulary, or does it imply new orientations, conceptions and practices? It appears that ever since its introduction in 2000, the notion of urban renewal has been subject to variations in its meaning and in its implementation. A double regime of urban renewal exists. On the one hand, there are the operations officially labelled as urban renewal, which benefit from central state subsidies. These operations aim at a social urban development, and almost exclusively concern the so-called quartiers sensibles, large high-rise housing estates in the banlieus. On the other hand, there are more market-driven, locally initiated and realised operations of regeneration of derelict and run-down areas of the city.     

台湾地区都市更新中的容积奖励制度改革研究

城市更新是既有利益格局的再平衡,也是空间增值收益的再分配过程。在内地城市更新中,容积奖励等制度也逐渐成为政府实现公益性政策目标、推动城市更新的重要政策工具。然而,由于制度设计缺陷引发的一系列容积率奖励运作问题值得关注。对我国台湾地区的研究表明,通过刚性与弹性管控相结合、增强奖励标准的确定性、增强奖励制度管控的精细化程度等改革方式,可以在一定程度上弥补制度缺陷,实现容积奖励的真正目标。深圳城市更新中的容积奖励制度与改革前的台湾地区具有相似之处,通过探究台湾地区容积奖励制度改革的运作逻辑,以期对深圳等内地地区城市更新中的容积奖励制度改革提供经验。     

公众参与和可持续的老城更新——扬州老城更新的实践与启示

在西方国家的城市更新中,公众参与是一个必要的过程和普遍运用的实施机制。但在中国的城市更新中,公众参与的深度和广度还相当有限。扬州市文化里的老城更新,全过程地运用公众参与机制,为中国的老城更新提供了具有首创价值的实践范例。扬州市的案例表明,公众参与不仅是实现可持续的老城更新目标的必要路径,也是在城市更新领域实现公众利益最大化的善治目标的关键机制。     

由"个体出租"到"政府公共租赁"——基于出租经济的"城中村"改造探索

剖析“城中村”中的出租经济现象,结合现阶段我国“城中村”改造和公共租赁住房建设中的现实困境,提出以公共租赁住房为导向的“城中村”改造模式;并在此基础上,进一步阐述了这种改造模式的动力机制和社会支持情况,提出要以“准入”“合作”以及“分权”作为这种思路落实的要点。