Depressive vulnerability in parents and their 5-year-old child's temperament: A family system perspective.

The actor-partner interdependence model was used to test whether one parent's depressive vulnerability (self-criticism and dependency) was associated with the same parent's own (an intraparental association) and the other parent's (a cross-parental association) ratings of their 5-year-old child's temperament (536 parents, 268 dyads). The more vulnerable the parents were, the more the children showed negative affectivity and lack of effortful control. Significant interactions with the parent's gender and between the spouses' depressive vulnerabilities were found, highlighting the fact that child outcomes are dependent on family processes. All associations were independent of maternal and paternal depressive symptoms. The influence of personality-based depressive traits on child temperamental outcomes and effective parenting is discussed with reference to between-dyad family dynamics. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Maternal work early in the lives of children and its distal associations with achievement and behavior problems: A meta-analysis.

This meta-analysis of 69 studies (1,483 effect sizes) used random effects models to examine maternal employment during infancy/early childhood in relation to 2 major domains of child functioning: achievement and behavior problems. Analyses of studies that spanned 5 decades indicated that, with a few exceptions, early employment was not significantly associated with later achievement or internalizing/externalizing behaviors. The exceptions were for teacher ratings of achievement and internalizing behaviors: Employment was associated with higher achievement and fewer internalizing behaviors. Substantial heterogeneity among the effect sizes prompted examination of moderators. Sample-level moderator analyses pointed to the importance of socioeconomic and contextual variables, with early employment most beneficial when families were challenged by single parenthood or welfare status. Maternal employment during Years 2 and 3 was associated with higher achievement. Some moderator analyses indicated negative effects of employment for middle-class and 2-parent families and for very early employment (child's first year). Associations also differed depending on whether effect sizes were adjusted for contextual variables. Only 1 study-level moderator (sex of first author) was significant after adjusting for other moderators. The small effect size and primarily nonsignificant results for main effects of early maternal employment should allay concerns about mothers working when children are young. However, negative findings associated with employment during the child's first year are compatible with calls for more generous maternal leave policies. Results highlight the importance of social context for identifying under which conditions and for which subgroups early maternal employment is associated with positive or negative child outcomes. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Effects of early maternal employment on toddlers, mothers, and fathers.

Investigated the effects of early maternal employment on toddler development and mothers' and fathers' parenting styles using a family system orientation. The 75 families with firstborn 20-mo-olds varied in maternal employment status (nonemployed, part-, and full-time). Observations were conducted of qualitative dimensions of parent–child relationships (toddler–mother and toddler–father attachment and child–parent problem-solving behavior), quantitative dimensions of family time allocation, and parental childrearing attitudes. Each mother had been employed outside the home prior to the baby's birth. 24 mothers had not been employed since the birth of their children; 23 mothers were employed part-time. Results indicate that maternal employment was not related to toddler outcomes (security of attachment or problem-solving behavior). It was related to the amount of time mothers spent with their children and to some childrearing attitudes and behaviors of fathers and mothers. Findings highlight the importance of examining direct (mother–child) and indirect (father–child) effects in the study of early maternal employment and the ability of families to adapt to a variety of lifestyles. (24 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Maternal resolution of child diagnosis: Stability and relations with child attachment across the toddler to preschooler transition.

In this longitudinal study, the authors investigated individual differences in how families adapt to a child's congenital disorder. Family impact, maternal grief resolution, and child attachment were assessed among 74 mothers and their toddlers with a neurological disorder or disfigurement. Fifty dyads were reevaluated 16 months later. For children with neurological compared with disfigurement diagnoses, there was a greater likelihood of negative impact on family, unresolved maternal grief, and insecure attachment at Time 1. Children classified as secure were significantly more likely to have mothers classified as resolved regarding their reactions to their children's diagnosis. Maternal grief resolution was significantly stable (77%) over time and mediated the relation between type of diagnosis and child security. With time, negative impact of child condition on the family decreased and percentage of children classified as secure increased, suggesting that on average families improved. Results suggest that helping parents come to terms emotionally and cognitively with their child's condition may be a useful focus for intervention. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Developmental psychopathology in children of depressed mothers.

It is suggested that the tripartite model by R. D. Parke et al (1988) of the ways that parents influence their child's social development might be used to organize the study of abnormal development in children of depressed mothers. Parents influence their child through dyadic interaction, coaching and teaching practices, and managing their child's social environment. Disruption in each of these areas has been associated with parental psychopathology and has been implicated in the development of deviant child outcomes. The components of a theoretical model of developmental psychopathology are outlined, as well as theoretical and methodological problems that have yet to be resolved. Issues of concern include the heterogeneity of maternal diagnoses; distinguishing among genetic, parenting, and environmental effects; matching the level of behavioral analysis with the question being answered; the heterogeneity of child outcomes; age-related effects; bidirectional influences; and the role of paternal psychopathology. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Single parenthood and school readiness in White, Black, and Hispanic 6- and 7-year-olds.

The aim of this research was to examine the circumstances under which single parenthood may or may not represent an adverse influence on school readiness and achievement in 6–7-year-old children of White, Black, and Hispanic families in a large national survey (NLSY). Home visits provided measures of maternal and family characteristics and of children's vocabulary, math, reading, and behavior problems. Single parenthood was essentially unrelated to the child outcomes in all ethnic groups, and it did not interact with maternal education, ability level, or employment or with poverty status or child gender. Although single- and 2-parent families differed in income, they were very similar in maternal ability and education levels, thus suggesting that in the presence of positive maternal or family characteristics supportive of children's development, single parenthood as such need not represent a risk factor for these early child outcomes. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Working mothers and their families.

The topic of maternal employment and its effects on the family is receiving considerable attention as more and more mothers enter the work force when their children are very young. This article reviews the effects of mothers' employment on marital relations, on the development of their children, and on mothers themselves. Research shows that maternal employment per se is not the major issue in either marital relations or child development. Rather, the circumstances of the family, the attitudes and expectations of fathers and mothers, and the distribution of time available have important effects. The needs of working mothers for social supports, such as parental leave, spouse support, child care, and better wages are considered. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Child and family coping one year after mediated and litigated child custody disputes.

Evaluated child and family outcomes 1 yr after parents had used mediation (n?=?32) or litigation (n?=?26) to settle custody disputes over children aged 2–17 yrs. One year after settlement, parents in mediation showed greater correspondence in perceptions of the settlement process and of their child's problems. Contrary to expectations, there was a greater association between parent and child problems among families in mediation. Child outcomes did not differ in the mediation and litigation groups but did differ according to the level of parental conflict. Custody settlements that promote ongoing contact between parents after divorce may offer both rewards and risks. Children can benefit when the parents' relationship is cooperative, but may suffer when the parents continue to fight. More intensive intervention may be needed to help parents maintain generational boundaries and shelter their children from conflict after divorce. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Making homework work at home: the parent's perspective

This article views homework through the eyes of parents in a rural area whose children with disabilities spent a majority of their time in general education classrooms. The qualitative analysis of data from individual interviews, focus groups, and parent action research logs yielded five themes: (a) Parents felt ill-prepared to help their children with homework; (b) parents wanted more information about the classroom teachers' expectations of their child and of their roles as parents in helping with homework; (c) parents wanted their children to be given individualized homework assignments; (d) parents valued hands-on homework and projects in which the whole family could participate; and (e) parents wanted a two-way communication system that would allow them to become partners on their child's instructional team.     

Distribution and synthesis of type VII collagen in oral squamous cell carcinoma

Modern reproductive techniques and alternative family structures (with single or homosexual parents and adoption situations) raise questions about the consequences for the growing children involved. Genetic links appear to be less important for the functioning of a family than a strong wish for parenthood; parents who have become parents only through great efforts display a better quality of parenthood than average natural parents. Characteristics of the parent/parents, such as paedagogic qualities, and the quality of the parent-child relationship appear more important than the type of family. Published results of research reveal no reason why lesbian families should be judged differently from heterosexual ones as family types for the raising of children. The main negative factor for the functioning of the child growing up in a single-parent family is the marriage conflicts that have led to the single-parent situation; being raised by a single parent in itself has no adverse effect. Raising adopted children from other countries makes far greater demands on the adoptive parents than parents of biological children have to meet. The raising of a foreign adopted child by a single parent entails additional risks for the child's development. Data on the development of children in alternative family structures frequently concern exceptionally competent parents, which may have biased the findings.     

Family functioning in families of children with anxiety disorders.

The authors examined maternal and paternal reports of family functioning and their relationship with child outcomes as well as the association between anxiety and depression in family members and family functioning. Results reveal that maternal and paternal reports of family functioning were both significantly associated with worse child outcomes, including child anxiety disorder (AD) severity, anxiety symptoms, and child global functioning. Maternal and paternal anxiety and depression predicted worse family functioning, whereas child report of anxiety and depression did not. Parents of children with ADs reported significantly worse family functioning and behavior control, but only fathers reported worse problem solving and affective involvement compared with fathers of children with no psychological disorders. Findings from this study suggest that paternal as well as maternal anxiety and depression play a role in worse family functioning in children with ADs and that unhealthier family functioning is associated with worse child outcomes in this population. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Mother role satisfaction, mother–child interaction, and child temperament: A process model.

Using data from the New York Longitudinal Study (begun by A. Thomas and S. Chess in 1956 and continuing through to the present), the present authors tested the hypothesis that the relation between maternal role satisfaction and child adjustment is mediated by the quality of the mother–child relationship. Data were obtained on 51 children from unemployed mother families and 38 children from employed mother families. Beginning in the 1st mo of the child's life, the parents were interviewed periodically (approximately every 3 mo) for the 1st 2 yrs, and every 6 mo until after 5 yrs of age, after which they were interviewed in adolescence and young adulthood. Using the child's temperamental difficulty as an index of adjustment, results of several path analyses indicate that mothers who were dissatisfied with their roles showed more rejection of the child, and, in turn, had more difficult children. Findings illustrate the use of a process model in explaining the relation between maternal role satisfaction and child development. (36 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Beta-lactamase inhibitors: agents to overcome bacterial resistance

Parental illness can have a profound impact on family relationships and children's behaviour. The amount and nature of communication between parents and children about the illness can play an important role, both positively and negatively, in mediating the outcomes. When children have a disability, families can be reluctant to communicate with them about family difficulties. They are often concerned about the impact that parental unavailability may have on their child's life. This paper reports on three families in which the mother was diagnosed with breast cancer and one child in the family had a disability. The extent and specific characteristics of their communication about the maternal illness with their children, behavioural changes in the children, explanations of communication strategies and attributions of behavioural changes are described. Family coping strategies are examined with reference to Lazarus's process model of stress and coping and the use of either problem-focused or emotion-focused strategies. Implications for possible clinical interventions are proposed. In particular it is suggested that families be offered consultation about: what children might understand; ways in which to communicate effectively; and strategies for coping with the long-term implications of serious parental illness.     

Mother's emotional expressivity and children's behavior problems and social competence: Mediation through children's regulation.

The relations between mothers' expressed positive and negative emotion and 55–79-month-olds' (76% European American) regulation, social competence, and adjustment were examined. Structural equation modeling was used to test the plausibility of the hypothesis that the effects of maternal expression of emotion on children's adjustment and social competence are mediated through children's dispositional regulation. Mothers' expressed emotions were assessed during interactions with their children and with maternal reports of emotions expressed in the family. Children's regulation, externalizing and internalizing problems, and social competence were rated by parents and teachers, and children's persistence was surreptitiously observed. There were unique effects of positive and negative maternal expressed emotion on children's regulation, and the relations of maternal expressed emotion to children's externalizing problem behaviors and social competence were mediated through children's regulation. Alternative models of causation were tested; a child-directed model in which maternal expressivity mediated the effects of child regulation on child outcomes did not fit the data as well. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Les caractéristiques familiales des enfants présentant un trouble déficitaire de l'attention avec ou sans hyperactivité: Recension critique des écrits.

This article provides a critical summary of the most recent research on the family and parental characteristics of children with attention deficit disorder with or without hyperactivity (ADD/H). These variables interact and influence the development and the presence of ADD/H. This influence is more pronounced when the child also presents with oppositional defiant disorder (ODD) or a concomitant conduct disorder (CD). Most of the studies on families with children who have ADD/H suggest that the presence of ADD/H tends to be linked to a less functional family, especially if the child has concomitant CD/ODD. In addition, the psychopathological and non-pathological characteristics of the parents (attributing causality, feeling competent, personality, marital conflicts) are linked to the manifestation of symptoms in the child. The evolution of a child with ADD/H and the child's family are, therefore, influenced by family and parental characteristics, especially if the child exhibits concomitant CD/ODD. Most of the articles found on this subject seem to indicate that there is a reciprocal influence among the characteristics of the family, the parents, and the CD/ODD symptoms. In this article, we present a critique of the existing research and make suggestions regarding future research. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Parents' child-rearing style and child's sociometric status.

Examined relationships between parents' childrearing style, the child's prosocial behavior, and the child's sociometric status. The sample consisted of 112 children (6–11 yrs of age) and both their parents. Parental behavior in the interaction with the child was observed at home when parents and child worked together in 2 structured tasks. Factor analyses of parental behavior revealed that 2 factors, Authoritative/Democratic and Authoritarian/Restrictive, can be found in the subsamples of mothers and fathers. These 2 dimensions of maternal and paternal behavior appeared to be predictive of both the child's prosocial behavior and sociometric status. Results are discussed in terms of the possible link between parent and peer systems. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Family life-styles and child behaviors: A study of direction of effects.

Examined the direction of effects between slow-learning children and their families in 3 family types: learning-oriented (LO), high residential quality; achievement-oriented (AO), low residential quality; and outer-directed (OD), with little achievement orientation. Child variables examined were measures of adjustment and adaptive behavior. Family variables (assessed on measures including the Family Environment Scale) included levels of community and recreational participation, expressiveness, achievement orientation, provision of learning materials, harmony, quality of the residential environment, and openness with the interviewer. There were 56 LO children (mean age 12.6 yrs [mean IQ 69.6]), 37 AO children (mean age 12.2 yrs [mean IQ 68.5]), and 32 OD children (mean age 12.7 yrs [mean IQ 69.5]). Cross-lagged panel analysis revealed different directions of effect in the 3 family types. In LO families, the child influenced the family for all variables except for expressiveness; in AO families, parents influenced the child; and in OD families, there were bidirectional effects whereby the child's self-help skills influenced parents, but parents influenced the child in higher-level skills such as social adjustment, motivation, and competency in community living. (37 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Maternal Employment and Child Development: A Fresh Look Using Newer Methods.

The employment rate for mothers with young children has increased dramatically over the past 25 years. Estimating the effects of maternal employment on children's development is challenged by selection bias and the missing data endemic to most policy research. To address these issues, this study uses propensity score matching and multiple imputation. The authors compare outcomes across 4 maternal employment patterns: no work in first 3 years postbirth, work only after 1st year, part-time work in 1st year, and full-time work in 1st year. Our results demonstrate small but significant negative effects of maternal employment on children's cognitive outcomes for full-time employment in the 1st year postbirth as compared with employment postponed until after the 1st year. Multiple imputation yields noticeably different estimates as compared with a complete case approach for many measures. Differences between results from propensity score approaches and regression modeling are often minimal. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The intergenerational costs of parental social stressors: academic and social difficulties in early adolescence for children of young mothers

Social stressors embedded in parents' occupational and family roles have been shown to have effects on family interaction and the cognitive and emotional development of young children. Here we consider whether these patterns also hold for children in early adolescence. We study 1,158 10 to 14-year-old children born to the early childbearers among the female respondents of the National Longitudinal Survey of Youth cohort. We find that both poor quality of parental employment and low quality of mothers' relationships with their partners have adverse effects on the cognitive stimulation and maternal warmth children receive; living in informal unions is also associated with poorer parent-child interaction. These family interaction patterns in turn both buffer the effects of stressful family conditions and shape academic and behavior outcomes directly. Some work and family conditions interact in their effects: In particular, single mothering has less adverse effects on cognitive stimulation and behavior problems when mothers are employed in occupations providing higher complexity. The effects of current conditions are diminished but seldom eliminated when we control for possible selection effects by using data from earlier waves to control for earlier levels of child problems. These findings suggest that current parental social stressors continue to have consequences for both academic and behavioral outcomes during early adolescence.     

Dilemmas of child care in the United States: Employed mothers and children at risk.

Describes the lack of US policies and the research on child care needs, both for employed parents and for their children. Unlike all other industrialized nations, the US has not developed coherent policies on the twin initiations of parental leaves and quality child care. Although neither Canada nor the US have achieved the level of support for employed families that are common in Europe, the deficiencies of US policies are especially glaring. Given the high rates of maternal employment in both countries, the major issues are how to provide a comprehensive system of high quality child care for infants and young children and how to fund necessary services. (French abstract) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)