Effects of maternal employment on lower-class boys.

Repeated direct observations of 149 boys from 140 intact, lower-class families during a period of approximately 5 years were used to check differences in family structure and child rearing techniques of 45 working and 95 nonworking mothers. Comparisons showed no statistically significant differences in social status, father's stability, parental dominance, or emotional tone of parental interaction. The effect of maternal employment on personality development seemed largely dependent on the family milieu: (a) In stable homes, maternal employment appears to decrease the father's status and sibling rivalry and to increase sexual anxiety. (b) In unstable homes, maternal employment tends to decrease the father's status and sibling rivalry while increasing dependency and criminality. The authors conclude that maternal employment has different meanings to the child in stable as compared to unstable homes: in the former, it appears only to equalize status between the sexes and make sex role adjustment more difficult; in the latter, it may be interpreted by the child as rejection. (21 ref.) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Social connectedness and mothering: Effects of maternal employment and maternal absence.

We conducted two separate studies to test N. Chodorow's (1978) theory concerning the relationship between mothering and social connectedness, that is, a sense of self in relation to others. In two correlational studies, we examined the effects of maternal employment and maternal absence (because of death or divorce) on young adults' social connectedness, as measured by the Interpersonal Orientation (IO) Scale (W. C. Swap and J. Z. Rubin; see record 1983-22471-001). Although differences in maternal employment were not related to IO, maternal absence was related to IO. Daughters whose mothers had been absent since the daughters' early childhood rated themselves lowest on IO; this was especially true of daughters who did not report having a mother substitute. This finding provides support for Chodorow's theory because it documents a predicted sex difference, a predicted effect of "mothering" versus "fathering," and a predicted difference between early (i.e., preoedipal) and later absence. Future empirical work on moderators of child-rearing experience is warranted. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Effects of maternal employment on the child: A review of the research.

Reviews recent studies of the effects of maternal employment on the child. Research has been organized around 5 hypotheses: (a) The working mother provides a different role model than does the nonworking mother. (b) Employment affects the mother's emotional state-sometimes providing satisfactions, sometimes role strain, and sometimes guilt-and this, in turn, influences the mother-child interaction. (c) The different situational demands as well as the emotional state of the working mother affect child-rearing practices. (d) Working mothers provide less adequate supervision. (e) The working mother's absence results in emotional and possibly cognitive deprivation for the child. Accumulated evidence, although sketchy and inadequate, offered some support for the 1st 4 hypotheses. Empirical studies of school-age children yielded no evidence for a theory of deprivation resulting from maternal employment, but adequate data are not yet available on the effects of maternal employment on the infant. (3 p ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Effects of early maternal employment on toddlers, mothers, and fathers.

Investigated the effects of early maternal employment on toddler development and mothers' and fathers' parenting styles using a family system orientation. The 75 families with firstborn 20-mo-olds varied in maternal employment status (nonemployed, part-, and full-time). Observations were conducted of qualitative dimensions of parent–child relationships (toddler–mother and toddler–father attachment and child–parent problem-solving behavior), quantitative dimensions of family time allocation, and parental childrearing attitudes. Each mother had been employed outside the home prior to the baby's birth. 24 mothers had not been employed since the birth of their children; 23 mothers were employed part-time. Results indicate that maternal employment was not related to toddler outcomes (security of attachment or problem-solving behavior). It was related to the amount of time mothers spent with their children and to some childrearing attitudes and behaviors of fathers and mothers. Findings highlight the importance of examining direct (mother–child) and indirect (father–child) effects in the study of early maternal employment and the ability of families to adapt to a variety of lifestyles. (24 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Consistency between maternal employment attitudes and employment status

The stability of mothers' attitudes toward employment, employment status, and consistency between employment attitudes and behavior over a 15-month period was examined. Factors such as family finances, availability of child care, and child's health status that could influence either employment attitudes or employment behavior were explored. Mothers of preterm infants (N = 98) and mothers of full-term, healthy infants (N = 101) completed questionnaires regarding home/employment orientation, choice and satisfaction with the employment decision, and employment behavior as part of a battery of instruments administered when their infants were 3, 9, and 18 months old. Analyses indicated considerable stability in attitudes, behaviors, and consistency over a 15-month period for mothers of both full-term and preterm infants. Consistency groups were created based on employment status (employed versus not employed) and consistency status (consistent versus inconsistent) at each time point. Consistency groups differed on ratings of financial need and availability of child care.     

Effects of maternal employment on sex role perception, interests, and self-esteem in kindergarten girls.

Results of a study of 17 kindergartners with working mothers and 17 with nonworking mothers support the conclusion that parental roles were less traditional in families where the mother was employed outside the home leading to less traditional sex-role stereotypes on the part of the daughter. Self-esteem was not related to maternal employment. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Parental religiosity, family processes, and youth competence in rural, two-parent African American families.

A model that linked parental formal religiosity to children's academic competence and socioemotional adjustment during early adolescence was tested. The sample included 90 9- to 12-year-old African American youths and their married parents living in the rural South. The theoretical constructs in the model were measured through a multimethod, multi-informant design. Rural African American community members participated in the development of the self-report instruments and observational research methods. Greater parental religiosity led to more cohesive family relationships, lower levels of interparental conflict, and fewer externalizing and internalizing problems in the adolescents. Formal religiosity also indirectly influenced youth self-regulation through its positive relationship with family cohesion and negative relationship with interparental conflict. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Depression in mothers of infants: The role of maternal employment.

The purpose of this research was to identify significant factors that mediate the relation between employment, motherhood, and the mental health status of mothers of infants. In Study 1, 209 mothers of 12-mo-old infants were administered the Maternal Separation Anxiety Scale (E. Hock et al, 1988), Beck Depression Inventory, and a stress scale. Ss were divided into 4 groups on the basis of both employment status and employment preference. Women who preferred employment but remained at home reported higher levels of depressive symptomatology. Study 2 demonstrated the reliability of the finding and identified issues associated with underlying psychological factors. A new sample of 164 mothers completed the aforementioned measures, the Career Salience Questionnaire (J. H. Greenhaus; see record 1972-23919-001), and the Maternal Role Investment Scale (Hock, 1976). Results replicated those of Study 1 and also indicated that homemakers who preferred employment held conflicting sets of beliefs about the maternal role, separation from their infants, careers, and employment. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Wives' employment hours and spousal participation in family work.

This longitudinal investigation of spousal division of labor examined whether wives' and husbands' proportional and absolute levels of child care and household chores would be related to wives' paid work hours. Participants were wives and husbands from 104 Canadian dual-earner families who completed questionnaires in February 1988, August 1988, and February 1989. Within-time results show that wives' longer employment hours were linked to their lower proportional share of child care and lower absolute levels of household chores and to husbands' higher proportional share of child care. There was some evidence that increases over time in wives' employment hours were related to increases in husbands' participation in child care and household chores. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Relations between maternal employment and development of nursery school children.

Examined the relations between maternal employment status and nursery school children's sex role concepts, cognitive development, and adjustment. 110 children formed 4 groups according to their sex and their mothers' employment status. It was predicted that maternal employment would be associated with a broadening of Ss' sex role concepts and differential cognitive development depending on the sex of the S. Results show that Ss' sex role concepts were broader if their mothers were employed. Ss' perceptions of their mothers were not related to their employment status, but fathers were perceived more negatively by their sons if the mother was employed. Sons of employed mothers had lower IQ scores than either daughters of employed mothers or Ss with nonemployed mothers. Ss with employed mothers received better adjustment ratings from their teachers. (French summary) (31 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Parent–child interaction: The influence of maternal employment.

Data were collected from 40 mother–father–preschool child triads, including 20 employed and 20 nonemployed mothers. Information from the Parent-Child Activity Questionnaire, in-home unstructured observations, play task observations, and observer ratings indicated that maternal employment did not significantly alter the role specialization observed in single earner families. Mothers exhibited more caretaking, quiet play, positive affect, and speaking, whereas fathers exhibited more active play. Parents from single earner families demonstrated more speaking and quiet play than parents from dual earner families. Sons received more attention in families with nonemployed mothers, whereas daughters received more attention in families with employed mothers. Parents from families with employed mothers had more favorable attitudes toward dual roles for women. There was increased negative affect in families experiencing incongruence between parents' attitudes and the mother's employment status. (24 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Levels of family assessment: II. Impact of maternal psychopathology on family functioning.

The association of maternal and contextual risk factors with whole-family, marital, and parent–child levels of family functioning was examined. Maternal mental illness and multiple contextual risk best predicted whole-family functioning, but each was related to marital and parent–child levels as well. Nonspecific indicators of maternal illness, rather than diagnostic category, were the better predictors of family functioning. The multiple contextual risk index was the variable most associated with all levels of family functioning, more so than any indicator of maternal illness. These results indicate (a) that maternal mental illness and family functioning are strongly associated and (b) that variation in the conceptualization and measurement strategy for risk and family functioning affects the conclusions of research. The importance of clear conceptualization of family levels and psychopathology risk in families of young children is discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Cultural influences on positive father involvement in two-parent Mexican-origin families.

A growing body of research documents the importance of positive father involvement in children's development. However, research on fathers in Latino families is sparse, and research contextualizing the father–child relationship within a cultural framework is needed. The present study examined how fathers' cultural practices and values predicted their fifth-grade children's report of positive father involvement in a sample of 450 two-parent Mexican-origin families. Predictors included Spanish- and English-language use, Mexican and American cultural values, and positive machismo (i.e., culturally related attitudes about the father's role within the family). Positive father involvement was measured by the child's report of his or her father's monitoring, educational involvement, and warmth. Latent variable regression analyses showed that fathers' machismo attitudes were positively related to children's report of positive father involvement and that this association was similar across boys and girls. The results of this study suggest an important association between fathers' cultural values about men's roles and responsibilities within a family and their children's perception of positive fathering. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2011 APA, all rights reserved)     

Characteristics and correlates of sibling relationships in two-parent African American families.

The authors studied sibling relationships of African American youths and family and youth characteristics linked to sibling dynamics. Participants were fathers, mothers, and 2 siblings (M = 14.04 and M = 10.34 years of age) from 172 working-middle class 2-parent families. Cluster analyses of data collected in home interviews revealed 3 sibling relationship types: positive, negative, and distant. Parent education was lower, parent religiosity higher, and parent-child relationships more positive in the positive group; maternal discrimination experiences were higher in the negative group; youth ethnic identity was stronger in the positive group; and youth depression and risky behavior were higher in the negative group. The findings target sociocultural factors to consider in interventions for African American families. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Note-taking in the employment interview: Effects on recall and judgments.

Although note-taking in the employment interview is highly recommended, little research has examined its effects. This study investigated the effects of note-taking styles, review of the notes, and content of the notes on participants' cued recall of information and decisions made from videotaped employment interviews. Note-taking increased recall accuracy but not judgment accuracy. Being able to review notes resulted in increased judgment accuracy for those taking conventional-style notes. The content of the notes also had important implications for conventional note-takers, suggesting some benefits of recording notes using the key-points style. The findings suggest that the act of note-taking may be more important for memory and legal reasons than for improving the decisions made by interviewers. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Effects of maternal anesthesia in the neonate

All commonly used anesthetic agents and drugs undergo placental transfer. Understanding the placental transfer of anesthetic drugs and their effects on the neonate is essential for optimal administration of both regional and general anesthesia. Regional anesthesia is decidedly safer for the mother and, when properly performed, actually may be beneficial to the stressed neonate. The healthy neonate also benefits from maternal analgesia during labor and delivery. General anesthesia may result in transient neonatal depression, particularly when delivery is of an emergency nature. The skill and knowledge of the anesthesiologist are more important than the type of anesthesia administered. Therefore, when properly performed, both regional and general anesthesia are quite safe in terms of neonatal outcome.     

Family relationships, parenting practices, the availability of male family members, and the behavior of inner-city boys in single-mother and two-parent families

The primary goal of this study was to clarify if and how differences in the functioning of single-mother and two-parent families relate to the occurrence of behavioral problems among inner-city boys (ages 10-15). Data were collected on family relationships, parenting practices, the positive influence of male family members, and the severity of externalizing behavior problems. Results indicated that (1) multiple family risk factors contribute to the occurrence of behavior problems; (2) most family risk factors were generalizable to both single-mother and two-parent families; (3) although boys in single-mother families were at greater risk for developing behavior problems than boys in two-parent families, the risks associated with single motherhood were offset by a structured family environment, an effective disciplinary strategy that allowed for some degree of adolescent autonomy, and the positive involvement of a male family member; and (4) not all differences in the functioning of single-mother and two-parent families were associated with problem behavior, underscoring the importance of distinguishing between adaptive and maladaptive aspects of single-mother family functioning.     

Coparenting: A link between marital conflict and parenting in two-parent families.

Coparenting is examined as an explanatory link between marital conflict and parent–child relations in 2-parent families. Data were collected from 3 samples (pilot sample, n?=?220 mothers; preadolescent sample, n?=?75 couples; preschool sample, n?=?172 couples) by using the Coparenting Questionnaire (G. Margolin, 1992b) to assess parents' perceptions of one another on 3 dimensions—cooperation, triangulation, and conflict. Main effects for child's age and for parents' gender were found for cooperation, and an interaction between parent and child gender was found for triangulation. Regression analyses were consistent with a model of coparenting mediating the relationship between marital conflict and parenting. Discussion addresses the theoretical and clinical importance of viewing coparenting as conceptually separate from other family processes. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Effects of maternal age on parenting role.

Examined the proposition that maternal age influences parental role performance and satisfaction. Mothers, ranging in age from 16 to 38 yrs, comprised 53 full-term and 52 preterm dyads. Perceptions of parenting role were assessed 1 mo after hospital discharge of infancts using the Satisfaction with Parenting Scale; interactive behaviors were observed when infants were 4 mo old. When other demographic factors and psychosocial variables were controlled, increased maternal age was significantly related to greater satisfaction with parenting, to greater time commitment to that role, and to more optimal observed behavior. Effects of maternal age on observed behavior were stronger in the term sample, whereas effects of maternal age on role satisfaction were stronger in the preterm group. Results indicate that maternal age should be accounted for in studies of mother–infant interaction and child outcomes; the suggestion of linear age effects argues against popular beliefs that adolescent and late childbearing represent unique categories of risk for poor parenting outcomes. (27 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Effects of organizational citizenship behaviors on selection decisions in employment interviews.

This article reports on an experiment examining the effects of job candidates' propensity to exhibit organizational citizenship behaviors (OCBs) on selection decisions made in the context of a job interview. We developed videos that manipulated candidate responses to interview questions tapping task performance and citizenship behavior content in 2 administrative positions. Results obtained from 480 undergraduates provided support for our hypotheses that job candidates who exhibited higher levels of helping, voice, and loyalty behaviors were generally rated as more competent, received higher overall evaluations, and received higher salary recommendations than job candidates who exhibited lower levels of these behaviors. These effects held even after taking into account candidate responses regarding task performance. We also found that candidate responses to OCB-related questions tended to have a greater effect on selection decisions for the higher level position (supervisor of administrative personnel) than for the lower level one (administrative assistant). Finally, content analyses of open-ended responses indicated that participants' selection decisions were particularly sensitive to candidates who exhibited low levels of voice and helping behaviors. Implications and future research are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2011 APA, all rights reserved)