Effects of labels on the perception and discrimination learning of retardates.

Assessed the role of labels in perception in 54 familial retardates and 48 normal IQ children at 2 matched MA levels. 3 experimental manipulations were employed at each level in a factorial design. 1 group learned to associate a common label to random visual forms; a 2nd group learned distinctive labels to the same forms; finally, a 3rd group viewed the forms without labels. Following verbal training, all Ss received perceptual judgment and discrimination-learning tasks. No significant differences emerged between the retarded and normal Ss on paired-associate learning, discrimination learning, or perceptual accuracy without labels. In contrast to the normal children, however, the retardates' perceptual and learning processes were relatively unaffected by the learning of verbal levels. (16 ref.) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Attitudes toward retarded children: Effects of labeling and behavioral aggressiveness.

Examined effects of the label "mentally retarded" on attitudes of peers among 48 3rd graders. Half of the Ss were shown a videotape of an actor displaying acting-out behavior, while the remaining half were shown a videotape with the same actor engaging in passive behavior. Half of the Ss in each of these 2 groups were told that the actor was a 5th grader, and the other half were told that he was a mentally retarded boy in a special class. Analysis of variance results revealed a significant interaction between label and behavior, which indicated that Ss responded more negatively to the "mentally retarded" actor who displayed acting-out behavior than to the same actor who exhibited identical behavior but was not labeled. It is concluded that labels should be considered only as they interact with specific behavior. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Dissonance and humor: Evidence for the undifferentiated nature of dissonance arousal.

33 undergraduates were committed to performing a counterattitudinal behavior under conditions of high or low choice. Thereafter, the order of presentation of two potential sources of arousal was manipulated. Some Ss first watched and rated a cartoon and then completed a posttreatment attitude measure. Other Ss first completed the attitude measure and then viewed the cartoon. It was thought that the presentation of the attitude measure first would lead Ss to attribute any arousal they might be experiencing to their counterattitudinal behavior and hence to change their attitudes. Analogously, presentation of the cartoon first was predicted to foster an interpretation of any arousal as a humorous reaction to the cartoon. The attitude and humor ratings of high-choice Ss were more affected by the order manipulation than the ratings of low-choice Ss. It is suggested that the arousal created by an induced compliance manipulation may be a general and undifferentiated state that can be attributed to any plausible source. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The structure of attitudes toward alcohol: Specific beverages differ from generic alcohol.

Examined the extent to which attitudes about alcohol in general differ from attitudes toward specific types of alcoholic beverages (e.g., beer, wine) and whether S variables such as drinking status and drink preference moderate alcohol-related attitudes. 82 male and 102 female college students completed a computerized attitude and drinking habits assessment. Ss did discriminate among alcoholic beverages on the dimensions of potency and positivity. Five of the 6 specific beverages were rated as less potent than generic alcohol (GA); mixed drinks were rated more positively than GA. Ss consistently rated their preferred beverage more positively than GA. Results suggest that the attitude structure characterizing specific alcoholic beverages differs from that of GA. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Comparison of cognitive assessment methods with heterosocially anxious college women.

Investigated the comparability of self-statements generated by different cognitive assessment methods (structured questionnaire and thought listing) and the effect of an assessment delay on cognitive phenomena (self-statements; rational and irrational beliefs, evaluative, potency, and activity semantic schema; self-attributions; and self-ratings of discomfort and performance). The interrelationships among different cognitive variables were also studied. Ss were 64 high and low heterosocially anxious (as measured by the Social Avoidance and Distress Scale and a survey of heterosocial interactions) undergraduate females, who engaged in a conversation with a male confederate. One-half of the Ss completed the measures after the conversation, and the other half completed them 1 wk later. Findings show that although the 2 self-statement methods were counterbalanced, order effects were nonsignificant. Correlations indicated that self-statements (positive and negative thoughts) generated by the 2 methods were unrelated. Multivariate and univariate analyses failed to reveal significant effects for time of assessment. Significant effects were found on almost all variables for anxiety, constituting additional construct validity for these measures. A correlational matrix provided information about interrelationships among the cognitive variables. (34 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The cognitive structure of a social structure.

"A paired-associate learning experiment was performed in which men's names were the stimuli and the labels freshman, sophomore, junior, and senior were the responses… . Ss learned most rapidly to apply the labels freshman and senior correctly, a result that was interpreted as end-anchoring. The errors… Ss made during learning were patterned in such a way as to demonstrate generalization gradients for each label. On the supposition that the frequency of confusions of labels was inversely related to the psychological distance between them, it was determined that psychologically the labels fell on a single dimension, and that the distance from freshman to sophomore was largest… from sophomore to junior, shortest… from junior to senior of intermediate size." (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Adjustment of adolescents to chronic disability.

Investigated the relationship between adolescents' adjustment to a chronic disability and 8 demographic and attitudinal variables. Adjustment was defined as the total positive score on the Tennessee Self-Concept Scale. Ss were 59 12–18 yr old females with idiopathic scoliosis and their mothers. Analysis identified the following 4 variables, in decreasing order, that correlated with the adjustment of adolescents to scoliosis: (a) adolescents' tendency toward the container-isolator end of B. A. Wright's (1960) theoretical continuum of coping responses to a physical disability as measured by an attitude toward disability test, (b) a dimension of maternal attitude toward disability as measured by a disability factor scale, (c) a dependency factor of maternal attitude toward females and persons with scoliosis as measured by a factor analyzed 70-item semantic differential scale, and (d) a maternal high self-concept factor from the semantic differential scale. Ss did not differ significantly from peers on the adjustment measure, and implications for treatment and rehabilitation are discussed. (19 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Visual specificity effects on word stem completion: Beyond transfer appropriate processing?

Explored the determinants of perceptual specificity effects (PSEs) in visual word-stem completion. 256 undergraduates participated in 4 experiments. In Exp 1, Ss completed a stem completion task after a number-search task in study-condition and -case phases. Ss were assessed for their awareness of the study-task relationship and compliance with instructions. In Exp 2, retrieval instructions and study task were manipulated within Ss and between 4 study-test blocks. Ss in Exp 3 completed study-test blocks with unintentional test instructions as in Exp 2. In Exp 4, retention interval, and study-task and -case were manipulated within the Ss. In Exp 1, PSEs on the stem completion task depended on perceptual encoding when Ss' awareness of the study-test relationship was limited. In Exps 2–4, these effects depended on semantic encoding. PSEs after short retention intervals were independent of encoding task. (French abstract) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Self-persuasion and self-presentation as mediators of anticipatory attitude change.

Three experiments with 197 undergraduates determined when anticipatory attitude change occurs via self-persuasion or self-presentation and identified the implications for attitude persistence of a shift by either process. In Exp I, Ss' thoughts and attitudes were assessed while they expected either a counterattitudinal or a proattitudinal message. Ss generated thoughts and reported attitudes consistent with the direction of the anticipated message, even though their responses were anonymous. In the final 2 experiments, the publicness of Ss' attitudes was varied to examine the impact of self-presentational concerns on thoughts and attitudes. In Exp II, Ss in the private condition spontaneously generated more thoughts relevant to the anticipated counterattitudinal message than did Ss in the public condition. In Exp III, some Ss were told that the anticipated counterattitudinal message was not forthcoming. When the message was canceled in the public condition, Ss failed to show an anticipatory shift in attitude; in the private condition, however, anticipatory attitude change was obtained. It is concluded that when self-presentation concerns are manifest, temporary changes in attitude occur in response to these concerns. In contrast, when pressures to self-present are low, anticipatory changes reflect genuine shifts in attitude resulting from an active consideration of the merits of the counterattitudinal position. (25 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Presence versus absence of others: The effect on verbally expressed attitudes toward the disabled.

Tested the hypothesis that individuals express more favorable attitudes toward the disabled when in the presence of others than when alone. 36 students in a graduate rehabilitation course completed a 7-point rating scale pretest concerning 5 rehabilitation concepts, and adjective pairs were developed following the semantic differential model of C. E. Osgood et al (1957). Ss then viewed a film about meeting a blind person, following which they heard a presentation by and interacted with a blind model. Ss were randomly assigned to either individual or group conditions. Individual Ss again completed the 7-point rating scale in isolation. Ss in the groups discussed the film and the presentation together for 15 min before completing the posttest. All Ss were retested at 30-day follow-up. Results fail to reveal differences between conditions; however, Ss in both conditions demonstrated a significant shift in their attitudes toward blind persons. It is suggested that while the presence or absence of others did not contribute to an attitude change, the specificity of the attitude change strategy may bring about attitude change. (9 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Effects of psychodiagnostic labels, depression severity, and instructions on assessment.

Previous research suggests that the accuracy with which clinicians assess normal behavior may be impaired by inaccurate clinical labels. We examined the impact of a psychodiagnostic label on the accuracy of assessment of normal behavior and abnormal behavior that were either consistent or inconsistent with the label. Practicing psychologists observed three videotapes depicting intake interviews with three "clients" and provided DSM-III diagnoses and observational data after each videotape. We provided half of the subjects with traditional diagnostic instructions and the other half with behavioral assessment instructions. The label had either a neutral or negative effect, depending on its relation to the behaviors portrayed; the presence of the label decreased diagnostic accuracy for the normal client. Moreover, for the normal client, the diagnostic data were more susceptible to bias than were the behavioral assessment data. We suggest that a focus on specific behaviors, as opposed to global diagnostic impressions, helps clinicians to minimize potential biasing effects of inaccurate labels. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Effect of dimensional relevance on accuracy of simulated hiring decisions by employment interviewers.

Presented to 52 experienced employment interviewers (32 male and 20 female) videotaped simulated interviews with 2 applicants (APs) who were differentially qualified for 2 jobs. APs' qualifications and job requirements were manipulated to produce a match or mismatch between each AP and the 2 jobs. However, APs were about average in overall qualifications and were not significantly different in favorability. In a repeated measures design, half the Ss rated the APs on specific job dimensions relevant to the critical behaviors involved in the jobs, while the remaining Ss rated the APs on general job dimensions. Both rating procedures emphasized work behaviors but differed in the relevance of the work behaviors for the jobs under consideration. Results show that Ss who rated on the specific and relevant dimensions accurately discriminated between the more qualified and less qualified AP, whereas Ss who rated on the general job dimensions were not able to discriminate accurately between the 2 APs. There was also a trend for greater agreement among Ss who rated along specific job dimensions. (4 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Are (some) reports of attitude strength context dependent?

Assessed the impact of subjective experiences on judgment of attitude strength. 60 undergraduate Ss (median age 19 yrs) generated either 3 or 7 arguments that either supported. (for some Ss) or countered (for other Ss) their attitude toward doctor-assisted suicide, and subsequently indicated the strength of their attitude. Ss reported that their attitude was more important, intense, and certain after having generated 3 rather than 7 pro-attitudinal (or 7 rather than 3 counter attitudinal) arguments, suggesting that attitude strength is not always a stable feature of an attitude. Implications for models of attitude strength are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Perceptual selectivity, memory, and anti-Semitism.

The effect of attitude (anti-Semitism) upon perceptual accuracy and memory was studied. Ss scoring high and low in anti-Semitism were asked to identify photographs as being of Jewish or non-Jewish people. It was hypothesized that Ss scoring high in anti-Semitism would be more accurate in the identification of Jews, and that once having accomplished this task, the capacity to remember those identified as Jewish or not should be less accurate. The results confirmed the hypotheses. From Psyc Abstracts 36:04:4GD90P. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Hypothesis formation and testing in clinical judgment.

Examined the influence of a counselor characteristic (cognitive complexity), a general client observation (disability status), and a specific client observation (positive, negative, or inconsistent personality test results) on the quality of clinical hypotheses counselors develop about clients' problems and the number of questions they generate to test these hypotheses. 35 graduate students in counselor training completed a measure of cognitive complexity (the Paragraph Completion Method) before being presented with the case folders of 6 hypothetical clients. Ss were asked to read the material and form hypotheses concerning why the clients sought counseling. The case folders had varied client observations. Results show no effect of any of the independent variables on hypothesis quality; however, there was a significant interaction between specific and general client observations on the number of questions developed to test clinical hypotheses. Results suggest that both specific and general observations are important factors in clinical judgment. (7 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Attitude accessibility as a moderator of autonomic reactivity during decision making.

Attitude functionality was assessed in 2 experiments examining attitude accessibility as a moderator of physiological responses during decision making. In Study 1, experimental Ss but not controls rehearsed attitudes toward novel objects (abstract paintings). Subsequently, all Ss made rapid preference judgments for pairs of the paintings. In Study 2, attitudes were rehearsed by all Ss toward 1 of 2 mutually exclusive sets of abstract paintings. During the subsequent decision-making task, half the Ss made rapid pairwise preference judgments for rehearsed abstract paintings and half for pairs from the unrehearsed set. Autonomic measures were recorded continuously throughout both experiments. As predicted, in both experiments less autonomic reactivity was evident during the criterion pairwise preference task for groups for whom attitude rehearsal was relevant to the criterion task. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Cognitive dissonance in an intergroup context.

42 student members of a campus group supporting Ronald Reagan in the 1980 presidential election participated in a study of the effects of group membership on dissonance reduction. In a 2?×?2 factorial design, half of the Ss were asked to write arguments contrary to their attitudes, whereas the other half were required to write such arguments. Half of the Ss were then asked to advocate a position that was counter to the attitude that defined their membership in the group. The other half produced arguments that were counter to attitudes relevant to but not definitional of group membership. It was predicted that attitude change would be used as a way to reduce dissonance only by those Ss who freely wrote arguments counter to nondefinitional attitudes. Attitude change was not possible, however, for Ss who freely produced arguments counter to a definitional attitude; these Ss were expected to misattribute their arousal to the existence of a competing out-group and to reduce their dissonance by derogating that group. Results supported these predictions. The importance of group membership in affecting attitude change is discussed. (10 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)