Shear strength estimation for Åknes sliding area in western Norway

This paper deals with the unstable rock-slope at Åknes sliding area, located in the county of Møre and Romsdal in western part of Norway. The sliding body has a complex geometry with several sliding planes at different levels, involving unfilled joints, gouge material/brecciated material as well as bridges of intact rock. Stability of the rock slope strongly depends on the shear strength of the sliding plane(s) and this paper discusses the shear strength of the materials present, ranging between the strength of intact rock and crushed, clay containing gouge material. Estimation of the in situ shear strength at the Åknes sliding area is discussed on the basis of triaxial test results and the Barton–Bandis empirical method. Triaxial tests have been carried out on samples of gouge material from a potential sliding plane and intact rock specimens, while the empirical method has been applied for rock joints in the area. Comparison and correlation with experimental results found in literature have also been made. The resultant shear strength range for the zone of sliding has been found to be in the range of 0.5–1.3 MPa, depending on the normal stress and the composition of the sliding zone.     

Breakage and shear behaviour of intermittent rock joints

The breakage and shear behaviour of intermittent rock joints have been investigated in a series of direct shear tests with a new shear device, specifically designed for this purpose. The tests have been performed on specimens of rock-like material or hard rock, respectively, incorporating idealized non-persistent joints, made up of a number of short cracks in an en-échelon arrangement along the central shear axis.The shear behaviour of such a joint constellation has been found to be composed of different phases. The first phase of shearing is that of the actual rupture, initiated by the formation of wing cracks, starting from the existing cracks and growing into the material bridges, and concluded by the generation of additional new fractures connecting the initial cracks in the zone between the wing cracks. The second phase of shearing is characterized by friction processes and volume increase in the then continuous shear zone. Finally, the third phase of shearing, reached after large shear displacements, is determined by sliding processes inside the strongly fractured shear zone.In a large number of shear tests the geometrical parameters of the discontinuous joints as well as the loading conditions have been found to influence the activated shear resistance in each phase of shearing to a noticeably different extent. The orientation of the initial cracks and the normal stress, however, have been identified as the most influential parameters. Depending on the test conditions, an initially discontinuous rock joint can activate the largest shear resistance not just before rupture but in one of the two subsequent phases of shearing as well.The mechanisms which govern the different shear phases could be identified as (1) tensile rupturing, (2) rolling and sliding friction of dilatant joint zones and (3) sliding within the joint filling composed of brecciated material.     

Effect of roughness on the shear behavior of rock joints subjected to impact loading

The shear behavior is regarded as the dominant property of rock joints and is dramatically affected by the joint surface roughness. To date, the effect of surface roughness on the shear behavior of rock joints under static or cyclic loading conditions has been extensively studied, but such effect under impact loading conditions keeps unclear. To address this issue, a series of impact shear tests was performed using a novel-designed dynamic experimental system combined with the digital image correlation (DIC) technique. The dynamic shear strength, deformability and failure mode of the jointed specimens with various joint roughness coefficients (JRC) are comprehensively analyzed. Results show that the shear strength and shear displacement characteristics of the rock joint under the impact loading keep consistent with those under static loading conditions. However, the temporal variations of shear stress, slip displacement and normal displacement under the impact loading conditions show obviously different behaviors. An elastic rebound of the slip displacement occurs during the impact shearing and its value increases with increasing joint roughness. Two identifiable stages (i.e. compression and dilation) are observed in the normal displacement curves for the rougher rock joints, whereas the joints with small roughness only manifest normal compression displacement. Besides, as the roughness increases, the maximum compression tends to decrease, while the maximum dilation gradually increases. Moreover, the microstructural analysis based on scanning electron microscope (SEM) suggests that the roughness significantly affects the characteristics of the shear fractured zone enclosing the joint surface.     

Modeling Granular Crushing in Ring Shear Tests: Experimental and Numerical Analyses

A fault consists of a zone of heavily fragmented granular rock (gouge), which is confined between two rough walls made of fractured rock. The granular gouge is the result of previous fracturing of the wall rock by the combined effect of compressive and shear stresses. Through time, the granular fault gouge will experience various episodes of further fragmentation (crushing) as a result of the mobilization by shear of the fault walls. The evolution of crushing in a simulated gouge material was studied using laboratory ring shear tests and DEM ring shear simulations. The laboratory ring shear tests were developed using sugar as a weak granular material. It was found that the residual friction coefficient of this material maintained a constant value regardless of the severe degradation of the particles. This degradation was induced by increasing the angular deformation or increasing the applied vertical stress. Moreover, it was found that the grain size distribution of the original uniform material evolved toward a fractal distribution of sizes. The results from the DEM simulations confirmed those from the laboratory tests and provided also a visualization of the evolution of crushing. Event though originally DEM does not consider particle breakage, this was allowed by replacing particles fulfilling a predefined tensile failure criterion with an equivalent group of smaller particles.     

单轴荷载下砂岩波速特征与损伤演化规律研究

超声波波速变化是判定岩体裂纹扩展、损伤演化的重要手段。联合单轴压缩与超声波波速测试试验,探索了加载过程中砂岩试样的波速变化特征,并据此对砂岩的破裂发展及损伤程度开展了评价。结果表明,在压密和弹性阶段内,砂岩的波速和动弹性模量都呈增大趋势,表明砂岩结构随加载变得更加致密;而随加载进行由弹性阶段逐渐进入塑性阶段,波速和动弹性模量均开始下降;横波、纵波波速的转折点基本对应压密—弹性、弹性—塑形的转折点,而波速比的变化较符合岩心内部裂隙发展特征;对比发现,横波波速变化比纵波波速敏感性更大;在整个加载过程中,岩石的动弹性模量与应力应变曲线都呈现良好对应关系,表现为弹性阶段后期动弹性模量开始下降,而进入塑性阶段后,动弹性模量下降速率渐趋于最大值。该研究可为砂岩内部损伤演化规律及灾变预报预警等有益参考。     

Effect of soil–infilled joints on the stability of rock wedges formed in a tunnel roof

The use of an equivalent continuum for a rock mass is not always suitable for situations, where the failure is structurally controlled by discontinuities as in the case of wedges in the tunnel roof. In these instances, discontinuum approaches are usually preferred. Rock joints that are filled with soft infill are likely to be the weakest planes in a rock mass, having a dominant influence on its overall shear behaviour. In this case, the joint material model adopted for the discontinuities should be able to describe important mechanisms, such as asperity sliding and shearing, post-peak behaviour, asperity deformation, and the effect of the soft infilling. The latest version of a soil–infilled joint model is discussed here. It describes more comprehensively than previous models the occurrence of dilation and compression with lateral displacements, and also represents the hardening mechanism related to asperity interference as observed in the laboratory that cannot be readily captured by the existing joint models. An analytical approach for the analysis of rock wedges structurally controlled by soil–infilled joints and a numerical simulation based on a metro station collapse which occurred in Brazil in 2007 are presented.     

剪切带-弹性岩体系统的稳定及失稳滑动理论研究

首次应用应变梯度塑性理论对剪切带 -弹性岩体的稳定及失稳滑动进行了理论分析 ,得到了剪应力与剪切带上、下盘相对错动位移的理论关系 ,提出了采用软化段剪应力 -相对错动位移的斜率来评价系统稳定性的方法。研究结果表明 :剪切带上、下盘弹性岩石宽度越大 ,岩石材料剪切带宽度 (或内部长度 )越小 ,剪切弹性模量越小及降模量越大系统越不稳定 ;试验机剪切模量越小 ,岩样 -试验机系统越容易失稳     

A theoretical model for rock joints subjected to constant normal stiffness direct shear

The authors have conducted an investigation into the behaviour of rock joints subjected to direct shear. Both concrete/rock and rock/rock joints were investigated. The behaviour of rock/rock joints is important for the assessment of stability issues involving rock masses (e.g. rock slope stability). Concrete/rock joints are vital to the assessment of performance of concrete piles socketed into rock, rock anchors and concrete dam foundations.This investigation included an extensive series of direct shear tests under a range of stress boundary conditions. The rock used for the tests was a soft artificial siltstone, called Johnstone. The results from the tests on concrete/Johnstone joints have been presented in Seidel and Haberfield (Geotech. Testing J. (2002), accepted for publication) and on Johnstone/Johnstone joints in Fleuter (MEngSc Dissertation, Department of Civil Engineering, Monash University, Australia, 1997) and Pearce (Ph.D. dissertation, Department of Civil Engineering, Monash University, Australia, 2001, in preparation). This paper describes the theoretical models developed to simulate the observed behaviour, including asperity sliding, asperity shearing, post-peak behaviour, asperity deformation and distribution of stresses on the interface. These models have been combined into a micro-mechanical simulation of joint shear. Comparisons between program predictions and measured performance are presented and discussed.     

节理岩体边坡模糊稳定性分析方法研究

节理岩体边坡失稳破坏同时受控于节理与岩体抗剪强度。在对具有两组平行节理的岩体边坡失稳破坏机制研究基础上，探讨节理岩体边坡几何物理参数为模糊数情况下边坡稳定性评价的分析方法，给出节理岩体边坡模糊安全系数的计算公式，编制基于潜在滑动面自动搜索边坡模糊稳定性研究程序。算例研究成果表明，采用模糊分析方法可以对节理岩体边坡稳定性有更全面客观的了解，能为潜在不稳定边坡的稳定性评价和锚杆设计等提供重要的参考依据，避免发生由于计算参数不确定性引起的加固节理岩体边坡破坏情况。     

Evaluating damage during shear tests of rock joints using acoustic emissions

The acoustic emission (AE) signals generated during direct shear test were evaluated on different types of joints (rock–rock, rock–concrete and concrete–concrete). Several boreholes were cored from a dam body, rock mass and interface between dam and rock mass, and the samples were prepared and tested under direct shear test. A laser profilometer scanner was used for scanning the joint surfaces in order to assess surface roughness. By correlating the AE signals with the shear graphs one can predict the starting point of shearing during direct shear test. Count and energy parameters were analyzed in two different methods to monitor the shear behavior of the joints: a graph of the count and energy rates, and a graph of cumulative count and energy. Four separated periods were observed for bonded and non-bonded joints: linear pre-peak period, non-linear pre-peak period, post peak period and residual period. This study showed that AE has enough accuracy to monitor the shear behavior of the joints and it can be used in site confidently.     

随机形貌岩石节理剪切数值模拟和非线性剪胀模型

 采用满足正态分布的随机函数,构造岩石节理剖面的形貌,为研究受剪岩石节理的细观剪切特性和宏观剪胀效应提供研究基础。利用UDEC软件,基于CY微段节理模型,开发随机形貌岩石节理直剪特性的数值分析程序,采用CY微段节理模型的细观剪切力学参数,探讨微段节理的细观剪切特性和岩石节理的宏观剪切响应,提出节理抗剪强度参数与节理面粗糙度系数JRC之间的拟合关系。得到如下结论：JRC越大,岩石节理的宏观剪切峰值强度和剪胀角随之增大,而峰值剪切位移与JRC成反变化关系;随着法向应力的增加,节理的剪胀效应逐渐减弱;这些数值结论得到模型实验的充分验证。微段节理的细观切向爬坡和剪胀效应是岩石节理产生宏观剪胀的细观力学机制。通过对随机形貌岩石节理的宏观剪胀数值曲线性态进行分析,提出能考虑节理粗糙度JRC和法向应力影响的非线性剪胀本构模型,该模型较好描述了受剪岩石节理的剪缩段和剪胀段。     

非贯通节理的岩桥弱化力学模型研究

通过非贯通人工节理的直剪试验,对剪切过程中非贯通节理岩桥力学性质弱化的力学机制进行阐述,即在剪切荷载作用下岩桥内部微元发生张拉破坏导致岩桥力学性质弱化,并分析岩桥力学性质弱化区域的发展规律。在此基础上,假定岩桥微元强度服从Weibull分布,以岩桥微元的最小主应力作为岩桥微元强度随机分布变量,建立岩桥力学性质弱化模型,提出岩桥力学性质弱化度参数δ。再根据直剪试验结果,通过类比得到以剪切位移为变量的岩桥弱化力学模型,最后利用该力学模型分析非贯通节理岩桥的弱化度随参数m,u0的变化规律。分析结果表明,该模型能较好地反映剪切过程中岩桥的弱化破坏过程。     

Laboratory study on the mechanical behaviors of an anisotropic shale rock

Shale gas is becoming an important energy source worldwide.The geomechanical properties of shale rocks can have a major impact on the ef fi ciency of shale gas exploration.This paper studied the mineralogical and mechanical characteristics of a typical gas shale in Ohio,USA.Scanning electron microscope(SEM)with energy dispersive X-ray(EDX)analyses was employed to measure the microstructure and material composition of the shale rock.The anisotropic behaviors of shale rock,including compressive and tensile strengths,were experimentally measured.The characteristics of shale rock were also studied by nondestructive wave speed measurements.The shale demonstrated strong anisotropic behaviors with the tensile strengths perpendicular to the bedding plane around 300e360 times of that parallel to bedding plane.Results of ultrasonic tests indicated that both compression and shear wave velocities show strong anisotropic patterns.The compression wave speed was the smallest in the direction perpendicular to the bedding plane;while the shear wave speed was the smallest in the direction parallel to the bedding plane.The ratio of wave speed anisotropy is around 1.3e1.4 for compression wave;the ratio of shear wave speed anisotropy is larger and more diverse compared with the compression wave anisotropy.This might be related to the larger variability in the frictional adhesive strength along bedding plane than the compressive adhesive strength.     

A review of shear strength models for rock joints subjected to constant normal stiffness

The typical shear behaviour of rough joints has been studied under constant normal load/stress(CNL)boundary conditions,but recent studies have shown that this boundary condition may not replicate true practical situations.Constant normal stiffness(CNS) is more appropriate to describe the stressestrain response of field joints since the CNS boundary condition is more realistic than CNL.The practical implications of CNS are movements of unstable blocks in the roof or walls of an underground excavation,reinforced rock wedges sliding in a rock slope or foundation,and the vertical movement of rock-socketed concrete piles.In this paper,the highlights and limitations of the existing models used to predict the shear strength/behaviour of joints under CNS conditions are discussed in depth.     

钢筋混凝土Z形截面柱框架节点抗震性能试验研究

为了研究钢筋混凝土Z形截面柱框架节点的抗震性能,进行了8榀缩尺比为1∶2的Z形柱中间层节点的低周反复加载试验,得到了节点试件的破坏模式、滞回曲线和骨架曲线,以及受剪承载力和延性系数等用以评价节点抗震性能的主要参数。将试验得到的承载力与规程公式计算结果进行比较,结果表明Z形截面柱节点的承载力可按两个L形截面柱节点的承载力公式计算,计算结果和试验结果吻合较好。分析了轴压比、节点的配箍特征值、剪压比和Z形柱肢高肢厚比等试验参数对节点的抗震性能的影响,分析表明剪压比是Z形截面柱节点延性的最主要影响因素,剪压比小的节点试件具有良好的位移延性和滞回特性,而肢高肢厚比对节点的延性影响不大。     

固体三轴高压下红河断裂带周城断层泥力学性质的研究

在固体三轴高压和应变率4.4×10^-5s^-1下研究了红河断裂带周城断层泥的力学性质。研究结果表明,在差应力作用下,断层泥应力-应变曲线表现出与试件压实、屈服和碎裂流动等不同变形机制对应的非线性,线性等阶段性变化特征。干、湿断层泥破坏应力σ_c随围压σ₃的变化关系分别为在较高围压下,σ_c随σ₃呈线性变化。含水量对变形特征和破坏应力水平有重要影响。干、湿断层泥有效弹性模量E_ed和E_em以及（潮）湿断层泥的初始模量E_om均随围压增加而增加,但干断层泥初始弹性模量E_od近似保持常数。同时,E_oded,E_omem,E_em>E_ed。在试件变形过程中有声发射事件显示,但数量少,辐射弹性波能量小。断层泥试件破坏型式表现为渐进式碎裂流动特征,因此,断层泥变形有利于断层活动呈现稳滑。     

Contribution à l’analyse des mouvements gravitaires rapides de grande ampleur par la comparaison des materiaux sources et des dépôts: exemples alpins

Source areas and deposits of the La Madeleine rockslide-avalanche were analysed to quantify particle-size reduction with transport. Block volumes of the source area are simulated using geometrical programs based on stereological data. Grain volumes of the deposits are estimated by image analysis and granulometric tests. Comparison of the blokometric and granulometric curves reveal preservation of larger blocks and production of fine grains as matrix. Field observations confirm these results with larger blocks at the top of the deposits, and dynamic disintegration processes fixed in the deposits. Similar structures are discernable in the Flims and Köfels rockslide deposits. The La Madeleine, Flims and Köfels rock masses are initiated by sliding along pre-existing planes as bedding or foliation. Shearing and dilatancy processes take place along these planes to produce shear band gouge as faults. Shear stresses affect rock slabs by fracturing during displacement, to a granular state in the deposits. Original structures are preserved by confinement forces and topographic controls. At this stage, the granular rock mass cannot just slide, but evolves progressively to a fluid-behavior motion. Angular grains heterogeneous in size, confinement processes and larger blocks at the top of the rock mass are opposed to mixing, preserving original structures. Dynamic disintegration continues during the rock-avalanche stage by punching, grain extraction around larger blocks or collision phenomena. Mobility of high-speed rock movements results from topographic control and dynamic disintegration processes. At La Madeleine, Flims and Köfels, the rock mass impacts the opposite slope of the U-shaped valley, consuming energy. At La Madeleine, dynamic disintegration took place before impact, and the rock mass was able to flow along the axis of the Arc River valley. At Flims, dynamic disintegration of the rock mass was intensive, but not enough to completely evolve to a rock-avalanche. Lateral domains flowed along the axis of the Rhine River valley due to the lack of confinement. At Köfels, gneissic rocks were too hard to produce enough fine grains during the sliding stage, and the rock mass was stopped by topographic impact. These observations suggest that dynamic disintegration is a fundamental process in understanding the mobility of these large rock masses. Production of the matrix explains the transformation of the sliding block to a rock-avalanche, at the origin of its long travel distance. Modeling needs to take into account the dynamic disintegration that modifies the mode of transport as the source of mobility.     

武隆鸡尾山滑坡形成机理数值模拟研究

2009年发生的重庆武隆鸡尾山滑坡,因滑源区斜坡岩层整体缓倾山内,缺乏有效的临空面和滑移空间,因此,在滑坡孕育过程中存在前缘岩溶带压缩变形、底部剪切滑移、后缘拉裂以及最终前缘关键块体(岩溶带)侧向剪断滑出等一系列的复杂动力学行为。这一过程存在显著的连续变形向非连续变形的过渡与转化,单纯用连续介质的有限元和离散介质的离散元来分析模拟都很难取得较好的效果。为探究鸡尾山滑坡的孕育过程和失稳机理,运用将连续–非连续单元有机耦合的大型数值模拟软件CDEM,模拟鸡尾山滑坡的失稳过程和形成机制。研究表明:滑体前方岩溶发育带具有"可压缩性",为滑体运动提供了一定的变形空间;滑源区下方的采矿活动产生应力重分布,滑带抗剪强度降低,滑体沿其底部软弱带发生剪切蠕滑,并逐渐形成滑体后缘拉裂缝;滑动块体在向前滑移过程中不断挤压向前缘"易压缩带",坡体应力自组织调整,并逐渐在前部三角区形成垂直的第二破裂面,前缘抗力体(关键块体)形成,最后剪断岩溶带个别与稳定山体咬合岩块,整体失稳破坏。数值模拟结果较好地揭示了武隆鸡尾山滑坡前缘视倾向展布岩溶带"软基效应"所提供"准临空面",重现了鸡尾山滑坡"蠕滑—拉裂—压缩(压碎)—剪切滑出"的致灾机理。     

Influence of asperity degradation on the mechanical behavior of rough rock joints under cyclic shear loading

A cyclic shear testing system was established to investigate the mechanical behavior of rough rock joints under cyclic loading conditions. Laboratory cyclic shear tests were conducted for two joint types of Hwangdeung granite and Yeosan marble: saw-cut and split tensile joints. Prior to test, the roughness of each specimen was characterized by measuring the surface topography using a laser profilometer. Several important aspects of cyclic joint behavior, such as high peak shear strength and non-linear dilation in the first loading cycle, different frictional resistance for the reversed shear loading direction, and anisotropic shear behavior and its dependence on the normal stress level were identified from the cyclic shear test results. These features and their variations in the subsequent loading cycles are mainly due to the effect of second order asperities and strength of rock material. It was also observed from experimental results that degradation of asperities under cyclic shear loading also followed the exponential degradation laws for asperity angle and the mechanism for asperity degradation would be different depending upon the shearing direction and the type of asperities. Based on the experimental results an elasto-plastic constitutive model, which can consider the degradation of second order asperities, was proposed. Numerical simulations for the monotonic and cyclic shear loading indicated agreement with the laboratory test results.     

Nonlinear shear behavior of rock joints using a linearized implementation of the Barton-Bandis model

Experiments on rock joint behaviors have shown that joint surface roughness is mobilized under shearing,inducing dilation and resulting in nonlinear joint shear strength and shear stress vs.shear displacement behaviors.The Barton-Bandis(B-B) joint model provides the most realistic prediction for the nonlinear shear behavior of rock joints.The B-B model accounts for asperity roughness and strength through the joint roughness coefficient(JRC) and joint wall compressive strength(JCS) parameters.Nevertheless,many computer codes for rock engineering analysis still use the constant shear strength parameters from the linear Mohr-Coulomb(M-C) model,which is only appropriate for smooth and non-dilatant joints.This limitation prevents fractured rock models from capturing the nonlinearity of joint shear behavior.To bridge the B-B and the M C models,this paper aims to provide a linearized implementation of the B-B model using a tangential technique to obtain the equivalent M-C parameters that can satisfy the nonlinear shear behavior of rock joints.These equivalent parameters,namely the equivalent peak cohesion,friction angle,and dilation angle,are then converted into their mobilized forms to account for the mobilization and degradation of JRC under shearing.The conversion is done by expressing JRC in the equivalent peak parameters as functions of joint shear displacement using proposed hyperbolic and logarithmic functions at the pre-and post-peak regions of shear displacement,respectively.Likewise,the pre-and post-peak joint shear stiffnesses are derived so that a complete shear stress-shear displacement relationship can be established.Verifications of the linearized implementation of the B-B model show that the shear stress-shear displacement curves,the dilation behavior,and the shear strength envelopes of rock joints are consistent with available experimental and numerical results.