An invitation to visual thinking.

Presents commentary by Lauren S. Seifert, President of Division 10, regarding Rudolf Arnheim's contributions. The work of Gestalt psychologists, Arnheim's included, so permeates post-millennial thinking about visual abstraction that we, ironically, scarcely recognize their contributions, as such. Some contemporary psychologists might be under the impression that Gestalt psychology had a brief and limited effect on the field, which has now abated. Psychology in the 21st century might even suffer from source amnesia regarding key aspects of our thinking about: (1) how sensation becomes abstracted into perceptual categories, and (2) how perceptual categories or worked and reworked into representational concepts. Psychologists who study artists and their work understand how remarkable it is to observe evidence of this lurching forward from sensation, to perceptual abstractions (and their interplay with other abstractions), and then, onto beautiful representations. This issue of Psychology of Aesthetics, Creativity, and the Arts embodies an expressive representation of Arnheim's contributions, which began long ago in Arnheim's own writings, moved forward as communications in aesthetics (by many scholars and including the symposium to honor him at the APA), and advanced to a truly beautiful, expressive representation of genuinely splendid ideas (e.g., in this issue). (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Visual complexity: A review.

The idea of visual complexity, the history of its measurement, and its implications for behavior are reviewed, starting with structuralism and Gestalt psychology at the beginning of the 20th century and ending with visual complexity theory, perceptual learning theory, and neural circuit theory at the beginning of the 21st. Evidence is drawn from research on single forms, form and texture arrays and visual displays. Form complexity and form probability are shown to be linked through their reciprocal relationship in complexity theory, which is in turn shown to be consistent with recent developments in perceptual learning and neural circuit theory. Directions for further research are suggested. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Perspective: Arnheim and In-Between Solutions.

Arnheim wrote extensively about perspective and percepts that were "in between" correct perception of objects and projected shapes. We apply Arnheim's views to a Renaissance piazza of square tiles. We show the kind of formalization to which the analysis leads and give a formula applicable to a perspective picture as an example. We argue that Arnheim was answering the Gestalt phenomenological question "why the world looks as it does" with comments that, happily, are also a solution to the Realist question "how perception lets us know about the world." Like Renaissance writers, Arnheim recognized that perspective had strict limits. Both the Gestalt and the Realist perception theories give accounts of the effects of perspective and both argue perspective constancy is widespread in perception, but Arnheim is correct that it operates within strict limits. We conclude that perception uses an approximation to perspective. The approximation is close under many circumstances but it produces what Arnheim called "in-between" percepts (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Reconciling simplicity and likelihood principles in perceptual organization.

Two principles of perceptual organization have been proposed. The likelihood principle, following H. L. E von Helmholtz( 1910/1962), proposes that perceptual organization is chosen to correspond to the most likely distal layout. The simplicity principle, following Gestalt psychology, suggests that perceptual organization is chosen to be as simple as possible. The debate between these two views has been a central topic in the study of perceptual organization. Drawing on mathematical results in A. N. Kolmogorov's ( 1965 ) complexity theory, the author argues that simplicity and likelihood are not in competition, but are identical. Various implications for the theory of perceptual organization and psychology more generally are outlined. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Conditioning to complex stimuli.

A research program is described dealing with behavior in a classical GSR conditioning situation. The empirical program is related "to the broader perspective of psychology in general." The research "affords a slim—but I hope stable—bridge between S-R learning theory and whatever is meant by perceptual theory." A rationale of assumptions is developed and on the basis of analysis predictions are formulated. "The present results are eminently consonant with an S-S interpretation of behavior… though I have attempted to make it consonant with S-R contiguity theory by employing the notion of internalized stimuli generated by responses to the conditioned stimulus." (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

A critical reflection on Arnheim's Gestalt theory of aesthetics.

Rudolf Arnheim applied the fundamental principles of Gestalt psychology to the creation and appreciation of film and art. These principles emphasize the primacy of structured perception and the spontaneous experience of emotional expression. The interplay of compositional "forces" creates a sense of tension in the overall structure of an artwork. Viewers spontaneously experience these effects but must learn that aesthetic "seeing" proceeds from the broadest overall pattern to individual features. The metaphorical meaning in a painting emerges when its subject matter is experienced in the context of its expressive structure. By way of critical commentary, it is proposed that metaphorical concepts like "forces" and "fields" should not be taken too literally lest they become reified. The focus should be placed on the dynamic effects of compositional contrasts and resulting tensions rather than on abstract "forces." With these ideas in mind, expressive structure in painting is explored in terms of complementary relations between two-dimensional surface and three-dimensional illusionist spaces. Following in Arnheim's didactic tradition, these ideas are examined in relation to a specific artwork through a discussion with the artist. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The psychology of thinking before the cognitive revolution: Otto Selz on problems, schemas, and creativity.

Otto Selz has been hailed as one of the most important precursors of the cognitive revolution, yet surprisingly few studies of his work exist. He is often mentioned in the context of the Würzburg School of the psychology of thinking and sometimes in the context of Gestalt psychology. In this paper, it is argued that Selz’s emphasis on the role of problems and schemas in the direction of thought processes and creativity sets him apart from the program of the Würzburg School. On the other hand, by developing a theory of thinking that is exclusively at the intentional level, Selz also differs from psychologists that take physics as a model for psychology, such as the Gestalt psychology of Wolfgang K?hler. Special emphasis is given in this paper to Selz’s use of the concept of problem or task and the concept of the schema. It is further argued that the concept of the schema is the result of Selz’s adaptation of the theory of relations as developed by the philosopher Meinong. The paper begins with a sketch of Selz’s life that ended so tragically. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Avoidance learning of perceptual defense and vigilance.

Thirty-two undergraduates were randomly assigned to defense and vigilance training groups. "This study supports the view that perceptual defense and vigilance are learned reactions to anxiety arousing stimuli." A behavior theory analysis of the learning process is proposed. "According to this analysis, perceptual defense is learned when the perceptual response to a threatening stimulus is punished and competing perceptual responses are instrumental to anxiety reduction. Competing perceptual responses when reinforced are strengthened at the expense of the critical perceptual response. Perceptual vigilance is learned when the perceptual response to a threatening stimulus is reinforced by anxiety reduction and competing perceptual responses are punished." Learning for both groups "proceeded in the absence of awareness." (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Gestalt psychology today.

The background of gestalt psychology is traced and relationships of gestalt psychology to physics are indicated. The notion of insight is reformulated. Certain trends in American psychology are not fully approved: "I doubt whether it is advisable to regard caution and a critical spirit as the virtues of a scientist, as though little else counted… . Too many young psychologists, it seems to me, either work only against something done by others or merely vary slightly what others have done before." Human experience in the phenomenological sense requires study. A gestalt view of motivation is presented "in terms of… forces which operate between certain perceptual processes and processes in another part of the brain, where a need may be physiologically represented." With de?mphasis on differences in Behaviorist and Gestalt schools and more emphasis on positive contributions of each, constructive work can be accomplished together. "It would be an extraordinary experience—and one good for psychology." (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Parallel and serial grouping of image elements in visual perception.

The visual system groups image elements that belong to an object and segregates them from other objects and the background. Important cues for this grouping process are the Gestalt criteria, and most theories propose that these are applied in parallel across the visual scene. Here, we find that Gestalt grouping can indeed occur in parallel in some situations, but we demonstrate that there are also situations where Gestalt grouping becomes serial. We observe substantial time delays when image elements have to be grouped indirectly through a chain of local groupings. We call this chaining process incremental grouping and demonstrate that it can occur for only a single object at a time. We suggest that incremental grouping requires the gradual spread of object-based attention so that eventually all the object's parts become grouped explicitly by an attentional labeling process. Our findings inspire a new incremental grouping theory that relates the parallel, local grouping process to feedforward processing and the serial, incremental grouping process to recurrent processing in the visual cortex. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

"The place of facts in a world of values: Subject and object in a postmodern world": Errata.

Reports an error in the original article by R. J. Smith (Journal of Philosophical and Theoretical Psychology, 2001[Fall], 21[2], 153-172). On pages 160, 161, 166, and 167 the subject to object relationship was reported at "S/O". The corrected representation is "S?O". (The following abstract of this article originally appeared in record 2002-10964-004.) The value-fact or subject-object split (S-O) recently defended by H. H. Kendler (1999) as necessary for a scientific psychology to establish facts, was rejected by Gestalt psychology as reducing the person to object status. The Gestalt solution correlating principles of perceptual organization with corresponding features of the object world (S/O) has however answered poorly to the vast cultural differences found in values. Communal/dialectical psychology in agreement with a postmodern worldview, treats facts as intrinsically value-laden social constructions mediated by a society's particular social relations (S?O) Examples of fact ambiguity are illustrated, and S?O is recommended as ontologically preferable for psychology as social science and for turn-of-the-millenium psycho-ecology. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Ivo Kohler (1915–1985).

Presents an obituary for Ivo Kohler, known for his study of human visual perception. In his most important work, which was reported in 1951, he described the results of a number of studies in which he and other subjects wore various types of glasses and goggles with prisms and/or colored lenses. Kohler will be remembered in a number of ways: for his outstanding contributions to the study of perceptual distortion and reorganization; for approaching perceptual problems from highly ingenious vantage points, including cybernetics and information theory; and, for his dedication to the development of novel electronic gadgetry. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The place of facts in a world of values: Subject and object in a postmodern world.

The value-fact or subject-object split (S-0) recently defended by H. H. Kendler (1999) as necessary for a scientific psychology to establish facts, was rejected by Gestalt psychology as reducing the person to object status. The Gestalt solution correlating principles of perceptual organization with corresponding features of the object world (S/0) has however answered poorly to the vast cultural differences found in values. Communal/dialectical psychology in agreement with a postmodern worldview, treats facts as intrinsically value-laden social constructions mediated by a society's particular social relations (S?0). Examples of fact ambiguity are illustrated, and S?0 is recommended as ontologically preferable for psychology as social science and for turn-of-the-millenium psycho-ecology. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Gestalt perspectives on cognitive science and on experimental psychology.

At the 1st author's request, the 2nd author was interviewed on Gestalt psychology's origins and utility for modern experimental psychology. Wertheimer's connections with Gestalt psychologists Max Wertheimer and Wolfgang K?hler and his study of Gestalt problems and methods, give him a special perspective on these issues. Several points for modern psychology emerge from the Gestalt perspective. Phenomena should be studied within their full context; there is a need to acknowledge the domain specificity of principles in experimental psychology; it is wise to study phenomena that either exist in the real world or have close real-world analogues; psychology must recognize interchanges between organisms and surroundings as determinants of behavior; and a data-driven perspective must complement, and sometimes replace, theory driven searches for broadly applicable, nondomain-specific principles. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Visual thinking in arts education: Homage to Rudolf Arnheim.

The influence of Arnheim's work on the author's research began with an experiment on the perception of visual balance. Two later research projects emerged from the profound influence of Arnheim's stance toward creation in the visual arts as a serious, cognitive endeavor. A series of meta-analyses were first conducted to test the claim that learning in the arts transfers to nonarts cognitive domains, but little evidence was found. Past research on the transfer hypothesis was found to be lacking because of its failure to assess learning in the parent domain. Therefore, a new research project was carried out to identify kinds of learning in the parent domain of visual arts. We identified eight thinking dispositions developed in serious visual arts classes, setting the stage for more plausible transfer studies. This study demonstrates that the visual arts inculcate basic skills in perception and cognition that exist both in the arts and sciences. All of the skills the authors describe can, with some modification, be transferred to the science laboratory. As Rudolf Arnheim has taught us, visual thinking is everywhere. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The role of perceptual load in object recognition.

Predictions from perceptual load theory (Lavie, 1995, 2005) regarding object recognition across the same or different viewpoints were tested. Results showed that high perceptual load reduces distracter recognition levels despite always presenting distracter objects from the same view. They also showed that the levels of distracter recognition were unaffected by a change in the distracter object view under conditions of low perceptual load. These results were found both with repetition priming measures of distracter recognition and with performance on a surprise recognition memory test. The results support load theory proposals that distracter recognition critically depends on the level of perceptual load. The implications for the role of attention in object recognition theories are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Age-related changes in selective attention and perceptual load during visual search.

Three visual search experiments were conducted to test the hypothesis that age differences in selective attention vary as a function of perceptual load (E. A. Maylor & N. Lavie, 1998). Under resource-limited conditions (Experiments 1 and 2), the distraction from irrelevant display items generally decreased as display size (perceptual load) increased. This perceptual load effect was similar for younger and older adults, contrary to the findings of Maylor and Lavie. Distraction at low perceptual loads appeared to reflect both general and specific inhibitory mechanisms. Under more data-limited conditions (Experiment 3), an age-related decline in selective attention was evident, but the age difference was not attributable to capacity limitations as predicted by the perceptual load theory. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The validity of hypnotically induced visual hallucinations.

Varying degrees of visual distortion were found to be related to varying degrees of hypnotic trance. In general, hypnotically induced perceptual distortion was not as effective as the "real thing." (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Rudolf Arnheim: An elegant artistic Gestalt.

Rudolf Arnheim created an influential new psychology of art by applying the Gestalt principles of perceptual organization to generate deeper understanding of great artistic works. He wrote widely used books on the psychology of art and taught for many years at major institutions of higher learning, and could be considered the founder of the discipline to which this journal is devoted. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Review of Art and Visual Perception.

Reviews the book "Art and visual perception," by Rudolph Arnheim (see record 1955-03680-000). In reading this book, one realizes why more psychologists have not been concerned with art. Art is a technical specialty in its own right and one must be expert both in psychology and in either creative art or the history of art to write on art. Arnheim's book brings the scientific knowledge of a trained psychologist to bear on the fundamental problems of visual art as it has developed through the ages. The discussion is always with reference to concrete works of art. Many original drawings, diagrams, and figures illustrate basic principles and important points. The writing is superb. The book is full of penetrating insights into questions of art and also into many problems of concern to the psychologist. Fundamentally this book is an argument against the usual art historian's approach, so well described by Arnheim as the purely subjective point of view, that what a person sees in a work of art "depends entirely on who he is, what he is interested in, what he has experienced in the past, and how he chooses to direct his attention". A book which reflects so well the author's urbanity, catholicity, and keenness of mind, as well as his technical grasp of the scientific and the artistic, is no small achievement. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)