The contribution of pupil,classroom and school level characteristics to primary school pupils' ICT competences: A performance-based approach

The central aim of this study was to investigate which pupil, classroom and school level characteristics are related to primary school pupils' actual ICT competences. A sample of 378 pupils in 58 schools in Flanders (the Dutch speaking part of Belgium) completed a performance-based ICT competence test in order to measure their actual proficiency in retrieving and processing digital information, and in communicating through a computer. To gather information on the factors at each different level, questionnaires were administered to the pupils, their parents (n = 378), their teachers (n = 83) and the ICT coordinators (n = 58) of the schools. Pupils on average have a low to medium score on the developed ICT competence test. The results of a hierarchical regression analysis with multilevel design show that the differences in ICT competences can be mainly attributed to differences in pupil level characteristics. The results indicate that especially non-ICT related pupil characteristics are associated with differences in primary school pupils' ICT competences, such as introjected regulation, controlling learning style, analytic intelligence, sex and socioeconomic status. Furthermore, the final model also indicates that parental ICT attitudes are related to primary school pupils' ICT competences. With regard to the classroom level characteristics, educational use of ICT as an information tool is significantly related to pupils' ICT competences.     

Factors affecting microcomputer use and programming ability of secondary school children

Abstract  A survey was conducted in Hertfordshire to provide information about microcomputer use both in school and at home. All schools were found to possess microcomputers but only a limited number of pupils reported using the machines. The extent and type of use was found to be affected by gender, access to a home computer, experience, and competence. The survey included a measure of programming competence and factors that influenced this were investigated. Able programmers were frequently found to be male and to have access to home computers.     

Similar products different processes: Exploring the orchestration of digital resources in a primary school project

Today, teachers and pupils are interacting with digital devices during different types of activities in the classroom context. During such activities, dialogic interaction has a particular value as a pedagogical practice that helps to develop pupils' understanding. This study has explored the question: In what ways do digital resources support dialogic and synergistic interaction?In order to explore primary school pupils' interaction within group activity and how they make use of the features of the laptops, the empirical material was collected through video recordings and further analysed with the interactivity analysis framework (IAF) developed by Beauchamp and Kennewell (2010). The findings show that although the products produced by the different groups of pupils were similar in a technological way (i.e. the pupils used the same modes of expression), the patterns of interaction during the group processes varied. Two out of six groups used the digital resource as an 'object of interaction', where the tool had a more passive role during the group collaboration. The other four groups used the ICT resource as a 'tool for interaction', where the resource became more of an interaction partner during the meaning-making processes, which opened up opportunities for learning. The findings also indicate that the interplay in these four groups between the group members and the laptop features seems to have developed the pupils' understanding of ICT resources as well as their understanding of the subject content during the group work. Synergistic interaction with ICT was rather rare but was observed in one of the groups.     

Teaching Computer Studies: an investigation based on teachers' lesson diaries

Abstract In preparation for a programme of pre-service and inservice teacher training, information was obtained on the teaching of Computer Studies to pupils aged 14 – 16 years. A structured document, the Lesson Diary Report Form (LDRF), completed by classroom teachers was used to gather data on nearly 700 lessons involving 1800 pupils. Information was obtained about the lesson type, the use of resources by teachers and pupils, homework assignments, and the timing of classroom activities.
Analysis of the data showed many similarities and only a few differences between lessons given in the first and second years of the two-year course. It was found that teacher training in Computer Studies teaching was a significant variable in deciding the choice of lesson type and the use of resources. No consistent pattern of lesson adaptation to pupils of different abilities was found.     

Interpreting the externalised images of pupils’ conceptions of ICT: methods for the analysis of concept maps

The ImpacT2 evaluation is using image based concept mapping as one method of exploring the impact of networked technologies on students' learning. In a pre-test administered in June 2000, students in three cohorts aged 10–11, 13–14 and 15–16, produced around 2000 ‘maps’. Entitled ‘Computers in My World’, these provide a means of students externalising mental representations of networked technologies. Using a phenomenographic approach, the study aims to identify qualitatively different patterns of thinking and trends in the development of pupils' concepts. Five quanititative measures emerged from heuristic analysis of the maps: nodes, links, connectivity, ‘Spheres of Thinking’ and ‘Zones of Use’. Analysis of the pre-test maps was carried out alongside analysis of pre-test questionnaires, using SPSS. The outcomes suggest correlations between pupils' experience and the constent of their maps. Phenomenographic interviewing of selected 11 year old pupils, which entailed handling control over to interviewees through the use of open-ended questions, enabled further exploration of their experiences and understandings of those experiences. A method for in-depth interviewing of young students is described. Data suggest that pupils have sophisticated ‘secondary artifacts’ or mental models of the nature of networked technologies and their role in today's world. This has implications for the way that ICT is used in schools and for its potential as a tool for students' learning.     

Introducing computers into a school —Management issues

This paper describes some aspects of the author's research into the implementation of computers in a secondary school in the United Kingdom. The research consists of an in-depth study of the introduction of computers in a comprehensive school (i.e. a case study). The school had seventeen microcomputers, twelve of which were for the school's newly formed Computer Studies Department; and the other five were for use within five major departments in the school where they were intended to be used specifically for Computer Assisted Learning (CAL) applications. The research looked at the different factors, at various levels, which influenced the introduction of computers into the school. This entailed investigating the organisation of, and decision-making within the school, and the views and opinions of the teachers about computers in general and in their teaching.The focus of this paper however is on the inter-play of teachers' attitudes, organisational constraints and solutions, and the leadership styles of the heads of departments. In this paper, examples from two departments and the school, over a period of one and a half years, are provided. The research showed a broad spectrum of views of teachers towards computers. Organisational constraints of insufficient time, lack of finance and resources, and the limitation of big class sizes, were seen as barriers to the use of computers. Some teachers also needed the guidance, leadership and cooperation from staff “above” them before any real uptake of computers could occur.     

Escape or Run?

Abstract This paper reports an investigation of development of expertise in Computer Aided Learning by teachers with no previous experience of computers. Through interviews with teachers to ascertain attitudes and to learn how experience had been gained, visiting a school to track its six computers, and recording first experiences of using different types of program in the classroom, some factors which may impede or promote the development of CAL are identified and some suggestions for initiation procedures made.     

The introduction of computers into a school

This paper briefly describes the authors' research into the introduction of computers in a secondary school. The research consists of an in-depth study of the implementation of computers in a comprehensive school (i.e. a case study). The school had recently purchased seventeen microcomputers. Funds for these were obtained through a wide range of sources. Twelve of the microcomputers were for the school's newly formed Computer Studies Department and the other five were for use within five major departments in the school, where they were intended to be used specifically for CAL applications. The research looks at the different factors, at various levels, which influenced the introduction of computers into the school. This entailed investigating the organisation of, and decision-making within the school. the views and opinions of the teachers about computers in general, the microcomputer in their department, and an analysis of the possible use of microcomputers in their teaching.The focus of this paper however is on the teacher, and attempts to outline the analysis that was carried out in order to get a clearer understanding of 15 of the teachers' views and opinions towards computers in general and in teaching. The first level of analysis was through a series of criteria which gave us a profile of each of the teachers. Having built up these profiles, this led us to draw a spectrum of teachers' views and opinions towards the use of computers in teaching, ranging from those who were favourable to those who were antagonistic towards them. We then looked at the spectrum of teachers' views which led us to analyse at a deeper level the changing roles that teachers perceived would be brought about by using computers in their teaching. We give two examples which illustrate these different models of analysis.     

How and why do student teachers use ICT?

This paper examines how and why student teachers made use of information and communication technology (ICT) during a 1‐year initial teacher education programme from 2008 to 2009. This is a mixed methods study involving a survey (N = 340) of the entire cohort and a series of semi‐structured interviews with a sample of student teachers within the cohort (N = 21). The study explored several themes, including the nature of student teachers' use of ICT; variation in the use of ICT; support for, and constraints on, using ICT; attitudes to ICT and to teaching and learning more generally. It was found that nearly all teachers were receptive to using ICT – more so than their in‐service counterparts – and made frequent use of it during their placement (internship) experience. The Interactive Whiteboard (IWB) was central to nearly all student teachers' use of ICT, in good part, because it was already used by their mentors and was widely accessible. Student teachers' use of ICT was categorized in three levels. Routine users focused mostly on the use of the IWB for whole class teaching; extended users gave greater opportunities for pupils to use ICT for themselves; innovative student teachers used ICT in a greater range of contexts and made more effort to overcome barriers such as access. ICT use was seen as emerging from a mix of factors: chiefly student teachers' access to ICT; their feeling of ‘self‐efficacy’ when using ICT; and their belief that ICT had a positive impact on learning – in particular, the impact on pupils' behavioural and affective engagement. Factors which influenced ICT use included mentoring, training and support. Limitations on student teachers' use of ICT are explored and it is suggested that new teachers need to be supported in developing a more discerning use as they begin their teaching careers.     

Beyond jam sandwiches and cups of tea: An exploration of primary pupils' algorithm‐evaluation strategies

The long‐standing debate into the potential benefit of developing mathematical thinking skills through learning to program has been reignited with the widespread introduction of programming in schools across many countries, including England where it is a statutory requirement for all pupils to be taught programming from 5 years old. Algorithm is introduced early in the English computing curriculum, yet there is limited knowledge of how young pupils view this concept. This paper explores pupils' (aged 10–11) understandings of algorithm following their engagement with 1 year of ScratchMaths, a curriculum designed to develop computational and mathematical thinking skills through learning to program. A total of 181 pupils from 6 schools undertook a set of written tasks to assess their interpretations and evaluations of different algorithms that solve the same problem, with a subset of these pupils subsequently interviewed to probe their understandings in greater depth. We discuss the different approaches identified, the evaluation criteria they used, and the aspects of the concept that pupils found intuitive or challenging, such as simplification and abstraction. The paper ends with some reflections on the implications of the research, concluding with a set of recommendations for pedagogy in developing primary pupils' algorithmic thinking.     

Direct measures of digital information processing and communication skills in primary education: Using item response theory for the development and validation of an ICT competence scale

In the past decade, several studies have measured ICT competences from the perspective of ICT self-efficacy. Such indirect measurements tend to have validity problems, as they depend on the pupils' ability to judge their own ICT competences. This study outlines the development of a performance-based digital test and the validation of a direct measure of ICT competence through the use of item response theory (IRT). More specifically, the test and the developed measure focus on primary-school pupils' proficiency in digital information processing and communication. 56 Items were administered to 560 pupils at the end of their primary-school education (age between 10.79 and 13.85 years old). The items were controlled for dimensionality, model-data fit, local item dependence and monotonicity. The final measure contains 27 items that refer to retrieving and processing digital information, and communication with a computer. The results indicate that the instrument is particularly reliable for low and median ability levels. Further refinement and possible future use of the instrument is discussed.     

The exploration of fourth generation language program generation to assist in the production of multimedia Computer Aided Learning

Fourth Generation Language techniques are used to provide an environment in which authors with little or no programming experience can easily and quickly create CAL (Computer Aided Learning) material. This approach arises out of collaboration between the French and Spanish Departments and the Computer Science Department in the Multifacet Language Laboratory project which is investigating the incorporation of CAL, interactive video, voice recognition and speech synthesis into the traditional language laboratory.     

Discovering physics with microcomputers

This paper describes the development and evaluation of CAL software developed for the Open University course “S271—Discovering Physics”. The programs are used by students at week-long summer schools which combine the practical experience of doing physics experiments with remedial tutorial sessions. A wide range of computer tutorials, simulated experiments and tutorial simulations as well as programs to enhance traditional physics experiments were produced. The software was implemented on the TERAK 8510/a graphics microcomputer. The project incorporated the development of an “implementation system” (called OASIS) based on UCSD Pascal to simplify such aspects as text layout, response parsing and graphics. An important part of the project was a program of testing and evaluation by staff and students at a week long summer schoolin 1981. Reactions to the programs were assessed using log sheets, interviews and questionnaires (both written and interactive using a microcomputer) as well as direct observation. The software and the associated printed material were completely redesigned on the basis of the results of this study. Another outcome of the evaluation was the acquisition of knowledge of how students use the CAL software in the environment of a physics summer school.     

How instruction influences attitudes of college men and women towards computers

The purpose of this study was to assess the influence of micro-computer training on attitudes toward computers. One hundred and ninety-four undergraduate and graduate students participated; 107 took a microcomputer training course, while the remaining 87 received no computer training. Students in both conditions completed the Computer Attitude Scale (Loyd & Loyd, 1985) during the first and final weeks of a 16-week semester. Results from a series of multivariate and univariate analyses indicated that (a) students who received microcomputer training demonstrated less anxiety, more confidence, and more interest in using computers than students who received no training; (b) there were no significant gender differences in attitudes at the beginning or end of the study; and (c) attitudes toward computers improved significantly over time with computer training but did not change without training. Implications of these findings are discussed.     

Computer systems simulation in education: Description of an experience

Computer Simulation will play an important role in future changes in Education. Here we will review how the Spanish National Project for Computers in Education, called Atenea, looks at Modelling and Simulation and how the first training courses for teachers, recommended by this project, are being carried out. We will give particular attention to the applications of the Simulation in the classroom using System Dynamics techniques. A real case study, developed by the pupils of a Simulation course for teachers, is outlined showing numerical and graphics results. Afterwards, SDSE—System Dynamics Simulator for Education—is superficially described: it is a microcomputer based system which has been developed by the authors to assist the process of building and simulating System Dynamics models in educative environments.Finally, some pedagogical applications, alternatives of use and major problems of the Simulation in educational environments are presented.     

Small-group discussions and the microcomputer*

An investigation into pupil-talk in groups during a CAL simulation game is reported. The role of language as an aid to communication and understanding is considered along with the potential of the microcomputer as a stimulus to and generator of discussion. The contents of children's conversations, at and away from the keyboard, are analysed.     

Computer anxiety and attitudes among undergraduate students in Greece

This study attempts to give an insight to the computer anxiety levels and attitudes toward computers of the students of the Library and Information Systems (LIS) Department of Technological Educational Institute (TEI) of Thessaloniki using Computer Anxiety Rating Scale (CARS) and Computer Attitudes Scale (CAS). Both constructs were examined using explanatory factor analysis. Internal consistency of the factors of each construct was satisfactory. It was found that there was a strong negative relationship between the two concepts. Canonical correlation analysis demonstrated that anxiety explains more variance of the attitudes than vice versa. Another finding was that most of LIS students were not anxious toward computers and with positive attitudes. Factors correlated negatively with anxiety and positively with attitudes, were knowledge of English language, PC ownership, access of students to computers at younger ages, perceived advanced computer skills and computer experience as reflected by frequency of computer use.     

Role of formal instruction and informal practice in learning to drive

Abstract

Learning to drive a motor vehicle is important for the mobility of the majority of people in industrialized countries. Although a great deal is known about the acquisition of psychomotor skills in the laboratory and in some other practical settings, there has been little scientific study of learning to drive. One major practical question concerns the value of formal tuition with a qualified instructor and informal practice with friends or relatives. This paper reports a cross-sectional study of 805 learner drivers in the UK who had undergone at least 5 h of formal tuition to examine associations between their history of formal tuition and practice and current levels of skill and confidence as assessed by both pupils and their instructors. The results indicated an increase in instructor ratings of pupil skill with both increasing practice and tuition. However, the relationship between tuition and instructor-rated skill was only observed in pupils who had had no practice. Pupils' self-confidence did not increase with either tuition or practice; instructors' feelings of confidence in and safety with the pupil increased with pupils' prior hours of practice but not tuition. Instructors' ratings of the likelihood that pupils would pass the driving test first lime were positively associated with prior hours of practice and negatively associated with prior formal tuition. The results suggest that informal practice constitutes an important element of the process of learning to drive. Longitudinal and experimental studies are now required to confirm this finding and to establish whether recommendations should be made for a component of driving tuition involving supervised practice.