The effects of time-compressed instruction and redundancy on learning and learners’ perceptions of cognitive load

Can increasing the speed of audio narration in multimedia instruction decrease training time and still maintain learning? The purpose of this study was to examine the effects of time-compressed instruction and redundancy on learning and learners’ perceptions of cognitive load. 154 university students were placed into conditions that consisted of time-compression (0%, 25%, or 50%) and redundancy (redundant text and narration or narration only). Participants were presented with multimedia instruction on the human heart and its parts then given factual and problem solving knowledge tests, a cognitive load measure, and a review behavior (back and replay buttons) measure. Results of the study indicated that participants who were presented 0% and 25% compression obtained similar scores on both the factual and problem solving measures. Additionally, they indicated similar levels of cognitive load. Participants who were presented redundant instruction were not able to perform as well as participants presented non-redundant instruction.     

Fostering multimedia learning of science: Exploring the role of an animated agent’s image

Research suggests that students learn better when studying a picture coupled with narration rather than on-screen text in a computer-based multimedia learning environment. Moreover, combining narration with the visual presence of an animated pedagogical agent may also encourage students to process information deeper than narration or on-screen text alone. The current study was designed to evaluate three effects among students learning about the human cardiovascular system: the modality effect (narration vs. on-screen text), the embodied agent effect (narration + agent vs. on-screen text), and the image effect (narration + agent vs. narration). The results of this study document large and significant embodied agent and image effects on the posttest (particularly retention items) but surprisingly no modality effect was found. Overall, the results suggest that incorporating an animated pedagogical agent – programmed to coordinate narration with gaze and pointing – into a science-focused multimedia learning environment can foster learning.     

The effect of the modality principle to support learning with virtual reality: An eye-tracking and electrodermal activity study

Background

Virtual reality (VR) is considered a promising approach to support learning. An instructional design is essential to optimize cognitive processes. Studies show that VR has unique instructional and pedagogical requirements.

Objectives

To evaluate the effectiveness and applicability of the modality principle, which was previously validated in 2D classic multimedia, for learning with VR. The modality principle states that multimedia information presented as spoken narration is superior to on-screen text.

Methods

A prospective experimental study with two compared conditions of instruction: VR-based learning guided by on-screen text (n = 34) versus spoken narration (n = 28). Students' cognitive learning experiences were captured by eye-tracking and electrodermal activity (EDA). In addition, students' knowledge was evaluated using a pre–post knowledge test.

Results and Conclusions

Overall, there was no significant difference in knowledge retention between the participants who learned with on-screen text compared to spoken narration. However, results from the eye-tracking analysis showed that students who learned with the on-screen text devoted longer visual attention toward important learning activity areas of interest, suggesting a better ability to discern between relevant and irrelevant information. Conversely, students who learned with the spoken narration expressed significantly more EDA peak responses, proposing a higher cognitive load.

Implications

This study outlines that while learning with VR was effective, the modality principle might not apply to learning with VR. Moreover, the analysis of the learning process suggests even an inverse effect, favouring the provision of instructional scaffolds as on-screen text. Future research should evaluate this effect on long-term knowledge retention.     

The impact of disfluency,pacing, and students’ need for cognition on learning with multimedia

In the current study, it was examined how learning with multimedia is affected by disfluency, pacing, and students’ need for cognition. Contrasting hypotheses were derived regarding how reducing the audio quality of spoken text by integrating hissing (disfluent) would affect learning outcomes. According to cognitive load theory, a disfluent audio quality should hamper learning, while according to disfluency theory, a disfluent audio quality should foster learning, especially when learning is self-paced. Moreover, self-paced learning should be particularly beneficial for learners with a high need for cognition (NFC). The hypotheses were tested in a 2 × 2-design, with quality of spoken text (regular vs. disfluent) and pacing (system-paced vs. self-paced) as independent variables and NFC as continuous variable. Supporting cognitive load theory, disfluent text decreased performance in a transfer and pictorial test. There was no significant interaction between spoken text quality and pacing. However, in line with previous research, self-pacing led to longer learning times and increased performance in a retention and in a transfer test. Moreover, results revealed that self-pacing had beneficial effects on understanding particularly for learners with a high NFC. This suggests that whether self-pacing of a multimedia instruction fosters understanding depends on learners’ specific cognitive prerequisites.     

The impact of multimedia effect on science learning: Evidence from eye movements

This study examined how middle school students constructed their understanding of the mitosis and meiosis processes at a molecular level through multimedia learning materials presented in different interaction and sensory modality modes. A two (interaction modes: animation/simulation) by two (sensory modality modes: narration/on-screen text) factorial design was employed. The dependent variables included subjects’ pre-test, post-test, and retention-test scores, showing their understanding of mitosis and meiosis process at molecular level, as well as data of subjects’ eye-movement behavior. Results showed the group that received animation with narration allocated a greater amount of visual attention (number of fixations, total inspection time, and mean fixation duration) than the group that received animation with on-screen text, in both pictorial area and area of interest, which is consistent with students’ immediate and long-term retained learning of the processes of mitosis and meiosis. The group that received simulation with on-screen text allocated a greater amount of visual attention than the group that received simulation with narration, consistent with students’ immediate and retained learning. The group that received simulation with on-screen text also allocated a greater amount of visual attention than the group that received animation with on-screen text, consistent with students’ immediate and retained learning. This study adds empirical evidence of a direct correlation between the length of eye fixation behavior and the depth of learning. Moreover, it provides insight into the multimedia effect on students’ cognitive process through the use of eye fixation behavior evidence.     

Environmental support hypothesis in designing multimedia training for older adults: Is less always more?

This study explores younger and older adults learning of MS Publisher functionalities from a multimedia tutorial. Twenty younger and twenty three older adults assigned to a redundant (experimental) or non-redundant (control) condition were taught how to create a greeting card, while the results of their learning were assessed with immediate and delayed performance measures. While younger learners benefited from a non-redundant condition, older learners exhibited an opposite trend. Redundant condition was beneficial for their performance efficiency on a set of a transfer tasks, and their troubleshooting performance during the delayed session. From a cognitive load perspective, using a redundant text along with an audio narration overloads learner’s working memory by placing more strain on the visual pathway and not providing any additional cognitive advantage. From an environmental support standpoint and decreased processing resources view of cognitive aging, providing additional representational support helps reducing the task demands for older adults and results in better learning. The results have cognitive and practical implications for the design of multimedia learning environments for older adults.     

When redundant on-screen text in multimedia technical instruction can interfere with learning

It is frequently assumed that presenting the same material in written and spoken form benefits learning and understanding. The present work provides a theoretical justification based on cognitive load theory, and empirical evidence based on controlled experiments, that this assumption can be incorrect. From a theoretical perspective, it is suggested that if learners are required to coordinate and simultaneously process redundant material such as written and spoken text, an excessive working memory load is generated. Three experiments involving a group of 25 technical apprentices compared the effects of simultaneously presenting the same written and auditory textual information as opposed to either temporally separating the two modes or eliminating one of the modes. The first two experiments demonstrated that nonconcurrent presentation of auditory and visual explanations of a diagram proved superior, in terms of ratings of mental load and test scores, to a concurrent presentation of the same explanations when instruction time was constrained. The 3rd experiment demonstrated that a concurrent presentation of identical auditory and visual technical text (without the presence of diagrams) was significantly less efficient in comparison with an auditory-only text. Actual or potential applications of this research include the design and evaluation of multimedia instructional systems and audiovisual displays.     

Does cognitive load moderate the seductive details effect? A multimedia study

Several studies have shown that adding seductive details to instructional materials has a detrimental effect on learning. However, other studies have shown non-significant findings. The present study uses cognitive load theory as a theoretical framework to explain these controversial results in seductive details research. Using a 2 × 2 experimental design we asked a group of high-school students (N = 100) to learn about biology with a multimedia environment that manipulated the presence of seductive details (with vs. without) and the modality of the verbal information (high load, on-screen text vs. low load, narration). The findings showed that students’ learning performance was significantly higher when seductive details were presented under the low load condition (narration) as compared to all other conditions. The theoretical implications for understanding the effects of non-redundant and interesting, but irrelevant learning material are discussed and future research directions are presented.     

Printing and screen reading in the medical school curriculum: Guttenberg vs. the cathode ray tube

Integrating computer-based learning into the medical school curriculum is hampered by students' propensity to print all digitally available material. The research presented here examines print vs. on-screen consumption of information. In interviews with medical school students variables?Time/Convenience Issues; Habituated Learning Styles and Document Formatting?emerged as patterns repeated by five or more subjects when asked 'why do you print instead of reading material on the screen?' These variables suggest there may be both hardware and software applications that could enhance the utility of student laptops. For example, less cumbersome computers with software allowing simultaneous multi-document use and annotating might be valuable features for students. Several variables, however, are outside the control of academic computing; for example, habituated learning from print and student time constraints. These findings provide a foundation to develop hardware and software design that would encourage on-screen use of information.     

Emotional design and positive emotions in multimedia learning: An eyetracking study on the use of anthropomorphisms

The present eyetracking study examined the influence of emotions on learning with multimedia. Based on a 2 × 2 experimental design, participants received experimentally induced emotions (positive vs. neutral) and then learned with a multimedia instructional material, which was varied in its design (with vs. without anthropomorphisms) to induce positive emotions and facilitate learning. Learners who were in a positive emotional state before learning had better learning outcomes in comprehension and transfer tests and showed longer fixation durations on the text information of the learning environment. Although anthropomorphisms in the learning environment did not induce positive emotions, the eyetracking data revealed that learners' attention was captured by this design element. Hence, learners in a positive emotional state who learned with the learning environment that included anthropomorphisms showed the highest learning outcome and longest fixation on the relevant information of the multimedia instruction. Results indicate an attention arousing effect of expressive anthropomorphisms and the relevance of emotional states before learning.     

The effect of multimedia discrepancies on metacognitive judgments

This study investigated undergraduate students’ metacognitive judgments while learning about complex science topics using multimedia material (text and graph). A within-subjects design was used to examine the effect of discrepancies on study-time allocation, metacognitive judgments and inference generation. There were three types of discrepancies: none, text (between two ideas in the text) and text and graph (between the text and graph). Forty (N = 40) participants completed 12 trials where they were asked to provide six judgments: Ease of Learning judgments (EOLs), immediate and delayed Judgments of Learning (JOLs) for both text and graph and Retrospective Confidence Judgments (RCJs). Overall, participants provided significantly lower JOLs for content that contained discrepancies but RCJs remained high across conditions. Discrepancies did not influence study-time allocation, but did significantly influence inference scores. Overall, results suggest that participants’ judgments are different for different aspects of multimedia content and may be based on the text.     

Integrating written text and graphics as a desirable difficulty in long-term multimedia learning

Many principles for the design of multimedia learning materials share the recommendation to facilitate processing. One prominent example is the modality principle, according to which pictures should be presented with auditory rather than visual texts. Research on desirable difficulties, however, indicates that – unlike short-term learning – long-term learning benefits when processing is more demanding and therefore more effortful. In a classroom experiment (Experiment 1) and in a laboratory study (Experiment 2), we tested whether the modality principle serves long-term learning. In a multimedia presentation on the formation of lightning, we varied the text modality (oral vs. written) and the delay between learning and test (retention and transfer performance tested immediately after instruction vs. one week later). In the immediate tests, there was either an auditory advantage (Experiment 1) or no difference (Experiment 2). However, when learning was tested after a delay, the combined processing of written text and animations led to better transfer performance than oral text and animations in both experiments. This suggests that written text presentation serves as a desirable difficulty that supports long-term learning.     

An analysis of the use of virtual delivery of undergraduate lectures

Educators and technologists have been wrestling with the most appropriate way in which to use information technology in teaching and in learning, for some years. We have seen online course notes, both linear, hypertext and hypermedia format, lecturer/student communication via electronic bulletin boards or via e-mail, multimedia courseware with student-directed learning and many others. All of these approaches have had limited impact on mainstream teaching in our universities and colleges and we believe one of the reasons for this is that these attempts all represent a significant shift in the normal student–lecturer relationship and an enormous amount of effort on the part of the lecturer. In our work we have addressed this by using technology to replicate the traditional mode of delivery of lectures to a class. The presentation of lecture material was digitally recorded, both audio and synchronised visuals, and made available for students to take in their own time. In addition we provided 3 orthogonal means to access this material. The present paper describes our analysis of the use of these `virtual lectures' by a class of over 100 students. Our analysis includes log files of all accesses to the online material, pre-course and post-course questionnaires and anonymous questionnaire feedback, some of this is compared to exam performance. Results indicate that mode of delivery, student usage and a student's technical bias have no impact on overall exam performance.     

Assessing the effects of different multimedia materials on emotions and learning performance for visual and verbal style learners

Multimedia materials are now increasingly used in curricula. However, individual preferences for multimedia materials based on visual and verbal cognitive styles may affect learners' emotions and performance. Therefore, in-depth studies that investigate how different multimedia materials affect learning performance and the emotions of learners with visual and verbal cognitive styles are needed. Additionally, many education scholars have argued that emotions directly affect learning performance. Therefore, a further study that confirms the relationships between learners' emotions and performance for learners with visual and verbal cognitive styles will provide useful knowledge in terms of designing an emotion-based adaptive multimedia learning system for supporting personalized learning. To investigate these issues, the study applies the Style of Processing (SOP) scale to identify verbalizers and visualizers. Moreover, the emotion assessment instrument emWave, which was developed by HeartMath, is applied to assess variations in emotional states for verbalizers and visualizers during learning processes. Three different multimedia materials, static text and image-based multimedia material, video-based multimedia material, and animated interactive multimedia material, were presented to verbalizers and visualizers to investigate how different multimedia materials affect individual learning performance and emotion, and to identify relationships between learning performance and emotion. Experimental results show that video-based multimedia material generates the best learning performance and most positive emotion for verbalizers. Moreover, dynamic multimedia materials containing video and animation are more appropriate for visualizers than static multimedia materials containing text and image. Finally, a partial correlation exists between negative emotion and learning performance; that is, negative emotion and pretest scores considered together and negative emotion alone can predict learning performance of visualizers who use video-based multimedia material for learning.     

Assessing the effects of different multimedia materials on emotions and learning performance for visual and verbal style learners

Multimedia materials are now increasingly used in curricula. However, individual preferences for multimedia materials based on visual and verbal cognitive styles may affect learners' emotions and performance. Therefore, in-depth studies that investigate how different multimedia materials affect learning performance and the emotions of learners with visual and verbal cognitive styles are needed. Additionally, many education scholars have argued that emotions directly affect learning performance. Therefore, a further study that confirms the relationships between learners' emotions and performance for learners with visual and verbal cognitive styles will provide useful knowledge in terms of designing an emotion-based adaptive multimedia learning system for supporting personalized learning. To investigate these issues, the study applies the Style of Processing (SOP) scale to identify verbalizers and visualizers. Moreover, the emotion assessment instrument emWave, which was developed by HeartMath, is applied to assess variations in emotional states for verbalizers and visualizers during learning processes. Three different multimedia materials, static text and image-based multimedia material, video-based multimedia material, and animated interactive multimedia material, were presented to verbalizers and visualizers to investigate how different multimedia materials affect individual learning performance and emotion, and to identify relationships between learning performance and emotion. Experimental results show that video-based multimedia material generates the best learning performance and most positive emotion for verbalizers. Moreover, dynamic multimedia materials containing video and animation are more appropriate for visualizers than static multimedia materials containing text and image. Finally, a partial correlation exists between negative emotion and learning performance; that is, negative emotion and pretest scores considered together and negative emotion alone can predict learning performance of visualizers who use video-based multimedia material for learning.     

Investigating text-picture integration in videos with the multimedia contradiction paradigm

In two experiments, the multimedia contradiction paradigm was used to investigate whether learners map information conveyed through the audio and the picture track of a video. In Experiment 1 (N = 85), the information conveyed through the audio track and the picture track was always consistent (control group) or was made inconsistent by changing the audio track at one point in time (text-wrong group). Experiment 2 (N = 143) added a second inconsistent condition by changing the picture track at one point in time (picture-wrong group). In both experiments, the learners' gaze behaviour differed from that of the control group when inconsistent information was presented in the experimental groups. This indicates that mapping processes—which are an indispensable part of integration—occur when learners process videos. Regarding learning outcomes, no differences between groups were observed. In addition, only a few learners remembered the conflict after learning. Further, recall shifted towards the pictorial information when learners encountered conflict.     

Embedded blended learning within an Algebra classroom: a multimedia capture experiment

This two‐group, pretest‐posttest, quasi‐experimental study compared secondary students' learning of Algebra II materials over a 4‐week period when identical instruction by the same teacher was delivered through either embedded blended learning (treatment group; n = 32) or a live‐lecture classroom (control group; n = 24). For both groups, instruction was delivered in a normal classroom setting. A math test and a student survey were used to measure students' learning of Algebra II and satisfaction with the instruction. Students in the treatment group showed significantly greater gains in Algebra II test scores and evaluated their learning experiences significantly more positively than did the control group. The great majority (80%) of students in the treatment group preferred the embedded blended learning over traditional live lectures for future learning of math. Students' responses to open‐ended survey questions suggested that students in the treatment group appreciated the: (a) ability to control the pace of instruction; (b) new role of the classroom teacher; (c) lack of distraction in the blended learning environment; and (d) accessibility of the embedded multimedia lessons outside the classroom. This study suggests that screen‐capture instructional technology can be used towards establishing a teacher‐based, embedded blended learning environment within a secondary algebraic classroom.     

PeerLearning: A Content-Based e-Learning Material Sharing System Based on P2P Network

Managing and retrieving reusable learning materials in a content-based way is a big challenge in e-Learning material sharing systems. E-Learning materials are highly heterogeneous; they may exist in the form of video, audio, image, slide or plain text. Furthermore, the learning systems are highly dynamic in the presence of massively increasing multimedia materials. P2P network seems to be one of the most promising infrastructures to deal with the challenge in such highly dynamic environments. In this paper we propose a Peer-to-Peer (P2P) infrastructure based on the trie tree and the deBruijn structure. It can support efficiently query processing in highly dynamic scenarios. Furthermore we develop a P2P e-Learning system PeerLearning to provide two content-based learning material sharing services: a keyword search component for supporting content-based document sharing and a content-based retrieval method for multimedia materials. Extensive experiments are conducted in this study to verify the superiority of our methods over the existing works.     

Exploring the relation between learning style models and preferred multimedia types

There are many adaptive learning systems that adapt learning materials to student properties, preferences, and activities. This study is focused on designing such a learning system by relating combinations of different learning styles to preferred types of multimedia materials. We explore a decision model aimed at proposing learning material of an appropriate multimedia type. This study includes 272 student participants. The resulting decision model shows that students prefer well-structured learning texts with color discrimination, and that the hemispheric learning style model is the most important criterion in deciding student preferences for different multimedia learning materials. To provide a more accurate and reliable model for recommending different multimedia types more learning style models must be combined. Kolb's classification and the VAK classification allow us to learn if students prefer an active role in the learning process, and what multimedia type they prefer.     

Using eye-tracking technology to investigate the redundant effect of multimedia web pages on viewers’ cognitive processes

This study utilized eye-tracking technology to determine the impact of redundant onscreen text information on viewers’ cognitive processes with respect to multimedia information. Sixteen college students participated in the study and their eye-movement data and self-reported cognitive load ratings were collected as they viewed three web pages into which different forms of verbal explanations of thunderstorm systems were integrated. A repeated measure design was utilized to support the research purposes. The eye-tracking data showed that viewers relied on text information as the main information resource for determining meaning. Students’ cognitive load reports reflected a redundant effect from the on screen text on their cognitive load level when both onscreen and narrative verbal messages were presented. However, eye-movement data revealed that viewers spent less time on the onscreen text when there was a narrative message presenting the same information. When the pictorial information was accompanied by both onscreen and narrative formats of verbal information, viewers seemed to be able to filter out redundant information. Additionally, replacing onscreen text with a voice-over seemed to globally orient viewers’ eye fixations toward the illustration. Discussions on results and suggestions for future studies are provided in this paper.