中庭烟气填充高度模拟研究

利用FDS模拟中庭内的烟气填充过程,分析环境温度、顶棚温度、火源功率、中庭体量对烟气填充高度的影响。通过分析温度数据和烟气层高度数据,得到烟气层高度与各因素之间相互影响的定性关系,并通过曲线拟合得到烟气层高度与各因素之间的定量关系。结果表明,烟气层填充高度基本不受起始环境温度的影响,烟气层高度峰值与顶棚温度、火源功率、中庭体量之间存在线性关系。     

水电站不同火源强度烟气运动模拟

应用FDS模拟水电站地下主厂房火灾烟气填充与流动动态过程,分析不同火源强度下烟气分层规律.重点分析火源强度为10 MW时的烟气填充过程、顶棚射流温度和横向烟气温度的变化特点.结果表明,烟气到达某一高度的时间随火源强度的变化服从一阶指数衰减;顶棚射流温度和烟气层横向温度变化具有很强的规律性;下层空气温度不高但浓度相对较高;同一水平面的烟气浓度分布很不均匀,距火源30 m以外处的浓度是距火源中心10 m以内处浓度的2～3倍.     

The Use of Fractional Factorial Design for Atrium Fires Prediction

In order to mitigate the excessive computational cost of atrium fire simulations, a novel methodology based on the use of the Fractional Factorial Design technique to obtain an experimental validated tool, in the form of a surface response model, capable to predict fire induced conditions is proposed. This methodology is supported by results from a Design of Experiments benchmark, which consists of a set of FDS simulations in the present work. Specifically, a \(2^{6-2}_{IV}\) approach has been considered and applied to a 20 m cubic atrium. Thus, six factors have been considered, namely the fire Heat Release Rate (HRR) and location, the exhaust flow rate, the exhaust location and activation time, and the inlet vents area. Furthermore, the smoke temperature at the roof and 15 m high and the smoke layer height have been considered the variables of interest. Subsequently, a multiple linear regression analysis has been performed to predict and compare the steady and non-steady temperature profiles and the smoke layer drop with six novel full-scale atrium fire tests, and also with specific adjusted FDS models. In addition, this methodology has been extended successfully to predict the non-steady behaviour of the fire tests. At the steady state, the HRR and the exhaust flow rate have been found to be the most relevant factors. The results obtained with the proposed methodology show a good fit both with the fire tests and with the adjusted FDS models, with discrepancies mostly below 14%. For non-steady conditions, a time analysis of the influence of the six factors has been carried out. Again, remarkable good agreement with the time-dependent experimental results is achieved, with average discrepancies below 12%, being the larger differences found in the prediction of local effects, such as the smoke ceiling jet, for high HRR or when the make-up air influence is significant. The results turn this methodology into a powerful and useful tool for fire safety designs.     

中庭空间烟气蔓延对火灾探测的影响研究

针对建筑中庭不同顶棚高度下火灾烟气蔓延及感烟探测过程,基于火灾动力学模拟软件(FDS) 开展了数值模拟试验。研究了顶棚处温度及能见度云图的变化情况,并分析了不同高度条件下线型光束感烟探测、消光系数及温度值的参数曲线特征。结果显示,顶棚处减光率到达50%/m 的时间和顶棚高度存在较好的函数关系y=26.58 × 1.06x,对应的R 值为0.996;顶棚高度≥30 m 时,竖直布置线型光束火灾探测器也是一种较好的选择。该研究能够为中庭内消防工程设计及火灾探测报警系统的布置及设计提供技术支撑,提高建筑消防安全水平。     

某地铁站台防烟分区存在问题分析

采取实地调查的方法分析了某地铁站台防烟分区不能分隔烟气的原因,结合FDS模拟计算给出了改进措施:由高度为0.5~0.6m的中梁加挡板、邻近轨道上方的挡板作为挡烟垂壁,将站台划分为2个独立的防烟分区,每个防烟分区的排烟量不小于1m3/(m2.min),能有效阻止常见行李火灾的烟气蔓延。     

中庭火灾烟气流动的大涡模拟

采用大涡模拟的方法,对中庭火灾烟气的流动过程进行了模拟,了解了中庭烟气的蔓延过程,得到了烟气的速度场和温度场、顶棚射流的速度和温度的详细结果。模拟结果表明,大涡模拟能比较准确地预测中庭内烟气的流动状态,可用于指导中庭建筑的防火设计。     

On the use of time constants for specifying the smoke filling process in atrium halls

The time constant proposed to specify the smoke filling time in an atrium hall for design purposes is further evaluated in this paper using the plume expression fitted by dimensional analysis. The zone model FIRST developed at the Building and Fire Research Laboratory, NIST, U.S.A. is used to simulate the smoke filling time. Predicted results of the zone modelling simulation supported the fact that the time required to fill 80% of the atrium space with smoke is related to its time constant. Full-scale experimental results on smoke filling processes in atria available in the literature are used to justify this parameter. Use of this quantity to specify the smoke filling time for an atrium space is recommended with a selected design fire.     

Numerical simulation of the spread of smoke in an atrium under fire scenario

The Fire Dynamics Simulator code is used to investigate the smoke movement in an atrium under fire scenario. At first, by comparing with experimental data of the atrium fire under low and high heat release rates, reasonable model constants of C_s and Pr_t and appropriate grid system are determined for simulating smoke movement in the atrium, the simulation results are in good agreement with those experimental data. Then, the performance of different smoke exhaust methods in the atrium is studied. Smoke filling processes are investigated under different natural and enhanced smoke exhaust methods. Simulated results show that natural smoke exhaust method is preferred when the smoke exhaust vents are located at the ceiling of the atrium. On the other hand, when the smoke exhaust vents are located on the walls of the atrium, the higher positions of the smoke exhaust vents are preferred. In addition, the influence of the fire source locations on the smoke spreading process is presented in this paper, three kinds of fire source locations are studied, they are central fire, side wall fire and corner fire. Results indicate that the descending process of the smoke layer is the slowest when the fire source is at the corner of the atrium.     

Determinations of the fire smoke layer height in a naturally ventilated room

According to the case-based reasoning of natural ventilation designs in recommended Green Buildings, an investigated model space was proposed in this study. FDS simulations and full-scale experiments were carried out to measure the impact of natural ventilation conditions and the installation of a natural ventilation shaft on smoke layer descent during different fire scenarios. The feasibility of using the N-percentage rule to determine the fire smoke layer height in a naturally ventilated space was also investigated.In a non-fire room, the smoke descent curve determined from the FDS simulated temperatures is consistent with the experimentally measured temperatures and visual observation of the smoke layer. However, the thermocouples in the fire room are affected by direct burning and fire radiation, and the experimentally measured temperatures cannot be used to determine the smoke height. Under these conditions, FDS simulations can be used to compensate for the lack of experimental measurements. In fire scenarios without outdoor winds blowing into the building's interior, FDS simulations can reliably model the fire smoke layer height. When outdoor air blows into the interior, it causes the smoke layer temperature to become unstable. Thus, the temperature will not be thermally stratified, and the use of the N-percentage rule is not recommended.     

Factors Affecting the Make-Up Air and Their Influence on the Dynamics of Atrium Fires

In case of fire, constructive features of typical atria could favor the spread of smoke. This makes the design of their smoke control and management systems a challenging task. Five full-scale fire experiments in the literature have been analyzed and numerically compared in FDS v6 to explore the influence of the make-up air. However, these fire experiments cover only a limited number of set-ups and conditions, and require further numerical modeling to obtain a deeper understanding of the makeup air influence. Subsequently, 84 simulations with FDS v6 have been carried out, considering different vent areas (air velocity from 0.4 to 5.3 m/s) and configurations, two heat release rates (2.5 and 5 MW), and two pan locations. It is demonstrated that make-up air velocities lower than the prescribed limit of 1 m/s, by the international codes, may induce adverse conditions. Based on our results, we recommended fire engineers to numerically assess the fire scenario with even lower velocity values. The results also show that asymmetric configurations are prone to induce circulation around the flame which can contribute to the formation of longer flames and fire whirls. Thus, this numerical study links two fire types allowing the connection of pool fires to fire whirls, which completely differ in behaviour and smoke filling, for the sake of design of fire safety.     

城市地下车道纵向通风条件下火灾蔓延规律研究

以城市地下车道为例,利用FDS进行火灾数值模拟,研究火源功率为15 MW和30 MW,纵向通风速率分别为1、2、3、4 m/s的情况下,地下车道内火源附近、顶棚和车道上方2 m高度处温度场的纵向分布规律以及各工况下的烟气蔓延状况.结果表明:随着纵向通风速率的增大,地下车道内温度逐渐降低,烟气影响范围逐渐减小;随着火源功率的增大,地下车道内温度逐渐升高,烟气影响范围逐渐增大.宜按最不利火灾荷栽设计地下车道纵向通风风速.     

Verification of the accuracy of CFD simulations in small-scale tunnel and atrium fire configurations

In preparation for the use of computational fluid dynamics (CFD) simulation results as ‘numerical experiments’ in fire research, the agreement with experimental data for two different small-scale set-ups is discussed. The first configuration concerns the position of smoke-free height in case of fire with vertical ventilation in an atrium. The second set-up deals with the critical velocity for smoke backlayering in case of fire in a horizontally ventilated tunnel. An N-percent rule is introduced for the determination of the presence of smoke in the simulation results, based on the local temperature rise. The CFD package FDS is used for the numerical simulations. The paper does not scrutinize the detailed accuracy of the results, as this is hardly possible with any state-of-the-art experimental data at hand. Rather, the global accuracy is discussed with current numerical implementation and models in FDS, considering continuous evolution over different version releases with time. The agreement between the experiments and numerical simulations is very promising. Even when quantitative agreement with experimental data is not perfect, the trends are very well reproduced in the simulations. While much additional work is required, both in CFD as in ‘real’ experiments, the results are encouraging for the potential of state-of-the-art CFD to be used as numerical experiments.     

Fire Dynamics Simulator (Version 4.0) Simulation for Tunnel Fire Scenarios with Forced,Transient, Longitudinal Ventilation Flows

In this study, a series of sensitivity analyses were conducted to evaluate a computational fluid dynamic (CFD) model, Fire Dynamics Simulator (FDS) version 4.0, for tunnel fire simulations. A tunnel fire test with a fire size on the order of a 100 MW with forced, time-varying longitudinal ventilation was chosen from the Memorial Tunnel Ventilation Test Program (MTVTP) after considering recent tunnel fire accidents and the use of CFD models in practice. A careful study of grid size and parameters used in the Large Eddy Simulation (LES) turbulence model—turbulent Prandtl number, turbulent Schmidt number, and Smagorinsky constant—was conducted. More detailed analyses were performed to refine the smoke layer prediction of FDS, especially on backflow (i.e., a reversed smoke flow near the ceiling). Also, energy conservation was checked for this scenario in FDS. A simple guideline is given for smoke layer simulations using FDS for similar tunnel fire scenarios.     

Effects of buoyancy induced roof ventilation systems for smoke removal in tunnel fires

The present article highlights the performance of natural roof ventilation systems and its effects on tunnel fire flow characteristics. Numerical analysis is performed using Large Eddy Simulations (LES) to predict fire growth rate and smoke movement in tunnel with single and multiple roof openings. The smoke venting performance of ceiling vents are investigated by varying the vent size and fire source locations. The critical parameters such as mass flow rate through ceiling openings, smoke traveling time and fire growth patterns are presented. The ceiling openings are effective in transferring hot gases and reduces the longitudinal smoke velocity. The heat source and ceiling vent locations significantly affects the vent performance and smoke behavior in tunnel. The present results are in good agreement with the experimental results available in literature.     

Results from a Full-Scale Smoke Alarm Sensitivity Study

A series of 24 full-scale experiments was conducted to examine the effects of alarm type (photoelectric, ionization, and dual sensor), alarm location, fabric type (100% cotton and 100% polyester), polyurethane foam density, ignition scenario, and room configuration, on smoke alarm performance. A two-level, fractional factorial design of eight experimental configurations was developed around the five factors: fabric type, foam density, fire location, ventilation, and ignition scenario. A structure, designed to represent a single-story home or apartment, was constructed inside the Large Fire Laboratory at the National Institute for Standards and Technology for the experiments. The fire source was a chair mockup consisting of a seat and back cushion of a specific cover fabric and foam density, weighing between 5.5 kg and 8.3 kg. It rested on a metal frame and was subjected to a small propane gas flame, or an electric cartridge heater to initiate smoldering. Each experimental configuration was replicated three times. Smoldering fires were allowed to progress until they naturally transitioned to flaming fires except for one test that was terminated early due to time constraints. The smoldering to flaming transition times ranged from (81 to 182) min. Each fire progressed for a time sufficient to produce multiple hazards (smoke, heat, and toxic gases). All alarms tested were purchased from retail outlets and activated at their preset levels. Photoelectric, ionization, and dual photoelectric/ionization alarms were co-located at multiple locations to facilitate comparisons of each alarm type, and different designs of the same type of alarm. For smoke alarms in the room of fire origin, it was observed that each of the five factors had an effect on the measured alarm times that was primarily a result of fire growth rate (fabric type, foam density, and ignition scenario), or smoke dilution and transport (fire location and ventilation). The photoelectric alarm responded quicker on average than ionization alarm in two of four smoldering fire configurations, responding before the ionization alarm in all 6 trials, while the ionization alarm responded before the photoelectric alarm in two of three trials for the other two configurations. The ionization alarm responded quicker on average than photoelectric alarm in all four flaming fire configurations, and responded before the photoelectric alarm in all 12 flaming fire trials. One dual alarm had the fastest average alarm time for all four smoldering fire configurations, and responded first in 11 of the 12 trials. It also yielded faster average alarm times than the other dual alarm in seven of eight configurations, and was the first dual alarm to respond in 22 out of 23 trials where dual alarms were present.     

通风对竖井型隧道火灾烟气特性影响试验研究

通过隧道火灾模型试验,研究纵向通风对竖井排烟效果及隧道内纵向烟气温度分布的影响。试验考虑不同火源热释放速率和纵向风速。结果表明：纵向风速对正庚烷池火热释放速率存在影响,对于较小正庚烷池火（≤11 cm）,火源热释放速率基本不随纵向风速而改变;对于较大正庚烷池火（≥14 cm）,火源热释放率随风速的增加先降低后基本保持恒定。此外,当隧道内风速较小时,竖井内烟气附壁排出,竖井后方烟气温度较低,控烟效果较好;当隧道内风速较大时,竖井内烟气出现边界分离,竖井后方温度升高,烟气蔓延距离增加,竖井排烟效果较差。因此,建议当竖井型隧道内发生火灾时,应尽量采用自然通风或较低的内部通风,避免较高风速。     

Full-scale experiment and CFD simulation on smoke movement and smoke control in a metro tunnel with one opening portal

Three full-scale model experiments were conducted in a unidirectional tube, which is a part of a metro tunnel with one end connected to an underground metro station and the other end opened to outside in Chongqing, PR China. Three fire HRRs, 1.35 MW, 3 MW and 3.8 MW were produced by pool fires with different oil pan sizes in the experiments. Temperature distributions under the tunnel ceiling along the longitudinal direction were measured. At the same time, CFD simulations were conducted under the same boundary conditions with the experiments by FDS 5.5. In addition, more FDS simulation cases were conducted after the FDS simulation results agreed with the experimental results. The simulation results show that the smoke temperature and the decay rate of the temperature distribution under the tunnel ceiling along the longitudinal direction increase as HRR increases. The smoke exhausts effectively from the tunnel under mechanical ventilation system, whether the emergency vent is activated as a smoke exhaust or an air supply vent. The operation mode of the mechanical ventilation system depends on the evacuation route.     

非规则大空间内烟气填充的研究

采用场模型和贴体坐标技术对某机场候机大厅的烟气填充情况进行了研究。研究结果表明,烟气下降到对人逃生有害的高度需要相当长的时间,随着火源强度的增加,顶棚射流速度和烟气温度增加,烟气层底面高度下降。     

岩后隧道火灾内部特征温度影响范围研究

为量化隧道内部发生火灾后的特征温度影响范围,以人眼高度的特征温度（70 ℃）和顶棚高度处的特征温度（334 ℃）作为影响范围界定参数。采用FDS数值模型方法研究了岩后隧道事故中单火源、多火源情况下的温度分布规律。研究结果表明：隧道中心线位置,无论是单火源还是多火源,人眼特征高度处的温度影响范围皆小于顶棚处温度影响范围。多火源时,在相邻火源区域间,人眼特征高度处温度出现明显叠加效应,而顶棚高度处则未出现该现象,但其区域内温度远高于人眼特征高度处,且衰减所需时间更长。以464 m长的岩后隧道为研究对象,30 s后距离第一火源50 m范围内的汽车已经达到可燃温度,360 s后距离第一火源184 m的煤车尚未达到可燃温度。人眼特征高度处烟流叠加区域温度呈现出极不稳定的动态升高,但最高温度较顶棚处低。叠加区域以外,顶棚处温度衰减比人眼特征高度处更为缓慢,但影响范围会持续扩大,受时间效应影响明显。     

Enclosure smoke filling revisited

Building fires go through a series of stages. They start with a fire plume/ceiling jet period during which buoyant fire gases rise to the ceiling and spread radially beneath the ceiling. A second stage, the enclosure smoke-filling period, follows; this second stage is the subject of this paper. It has been more than 20 yr since Zukoski first addressed the smoke filling stage of enclosure fires in terms of thermodynamic control volume concepts and fire plume entrainment, yet his analysis remains pertinent. This paper reviews and extends fire modeling concepts related to enclosure smoke filling developed by Zukoski. The mass-based analysis of Zukoski is recast in terms of the volumetric flow rates typically used for ventilation system design; it is extended to consider global average temperature rise and the effects of oxygen consumption on the maximum global average temperature rise that can be achieved in a closed-room fire. A spreadsheet template is developed to compare hand calculations based on a global analysis with numerical smoke filling calculations. Results of this comparison suggest that there is little difference in conditions predicted with the global hand calculations and the numerical smoke filling calculations; consequently, the hand calculations are suitable for preliminary fire hazard analyses.