Exploring factors of media characteristic influencing flow in learning through virtual worlds

This study aims to find out factors of media characteristic which are considered to influence flow in learning through virtual worlds. One hundred ninety eight elementary students who are eleven to twelve years old participated in this study. After the exploratory factor analysis, to extract media characteristics of virtual worlds, seventy-eight elementary students who are eleven years old were used in the analysis of exploring relationships between factors influencing flow.     

Social presence in relation to students' satisfaction and learning in the online environment: A meta-analysis

Social presence, the ability to perceive others in an online environment, has been shown to impact student motivation and participation, actual and perceived learning, course and instructor satisfaction, and retention in online courses; yet very few researchers have attempted to look across contexts, disciplinary areas, or measures of social presence. This meta-analysis allowed us to look across these variables of the primary studies and identify the pattern of student outcomes (e.g., perceived learning and satisfaction) in relation to social presence through scrutiny of differences between the studies. The results showed a moderately large positive average correlation between social presence and satisfaction (r = 0.56, k = 26) and social presence and perceived learning (r = 0.51, k = 26). Large variation among correlations (86.7% for satisfaction and 92.8% for perceived learning, respectively) also indicated systematic differences among these correlations due to online course settings. We found that (a) the strength of the relationship between social presence and satisfaction was moderated by the course length, discipline area, and scale used to measure social presence; and (b) the relationship between social presence and perceived learning was moderated by the course length, discipline area, and target audience of the course. Implications and future research are discussed.     

Researching haptics in higher education: The complexity of developing haptics virtual learning systems and evaluating its impact on students’ learning

hapTEL, an interdisciplinary project funded by two UK research councils from 2007 to 2011, involves a large interdisciplinary team (with undergraduate and post-graduate student participants) which has been developing and evaluating a virtual learning system within an HE healthcare education setting, working on three overlapping strands. Strand 1 involves the technical development and evaluation of the hapTEL workstation which simulates clinical conditions for dental training including haptics (sense of touch). Strand 2 involves examining the traditional undergraduate curriculum and how this could benefit from the use of haptics. Strand 3 is concerned with the educational evaluation of the impact of the work carried out within Strands 1 and 2. Two theoretical frameworks (Entwistle, (1987) and Webb and Cox (2004)) have been used to identify as many factors as possible which could affect the impact of Technology Enhanced Learning (TEL) on the quality of the learning achieved. These frameworks have formed a foundation for measuring the impact of TEL on curriculum change, teachers’ pedagogical practices, students’ learning and on institutional practices. A range of quantitative and qualitative methods were designed, piloted and evaluated in order to measure the impact of TEL on teaching and learning; and to have a rich and robust data set which also addresses the variables in the frameworks. The results from using these frameworks show that institutional and departmental factors should be considered when evaluating the impact of TEL in higher education and that these had a major influence on the design and curriculum integration of the hapTEL systems. We have also shown that by involving the end users from the beginning enabled not only an enhancement of the students’ learning experiences but also a modification to the traditional curriculum itself and the successful integration of TEL within a very traditional undergraduate higher education dental curriculum. The conclusions from this paper confirm earlier reviews of researching TEL that technology integration is extremely complex and the related research requires a comprehensive approach of both quantitative and qualitative methods if one is to take account of the range of variables identified by theoretical frameworks. Finally, repeating the range of empirical investigations for a second year enables researchers to validate the effectiveness of the methods used in the initial year and thereby maximise the reliability and generalisability of the research outcomes.     

Effects of community of inquiry,learning presence and mentor presence on K-12 online learning outcomes

This study extends the community of inquiry (CoI) framework and self-regulated learning (SRL) theory through an exploration of the structural relationships among existing CoI variables, learning presence (i.e., self-efficacy and online SRL strategy) and learning outcomes in the context of K-12 online learning. To help understand the influence of K-12 mentoring – which is unique to online learning in the U.S. – mentor presence is also included. Structural equation modelling of 696 online 8th through 12th graders' survey responses and final grades showed that adding learning presence to the CoI framework helped to explain how these learners translated their online-learning perceptions into cognitive and affective learning outcomes. We also found that mentor presence significantly and positively predicted online SRL strategy, one of the two components of learning presence. Lastly, we established a connection between the CoI model and various types of learning outcomes that are indicators of K-12 online learning success – though it should be noted that important differences existed between a model based on final grades and two other outcome models. It is hoped that the processes identified in this study will be useful and relevant to K-12 online-learning institutions and educators seeking to improve their offering via a wide range of approaches.     

Efficacy of virtual patients in medical education: A meta-analysis of randomized studies

A meta-analysis was performed to assess the Effect Size (ES) from randomized studies comparing the effect of educational interventions in which Virtual patients (VPs) were used either as an alternative method or additive to usual curriculum versus interventions based on more traditional methods.     

Dyslexic students in higher education and virtual learning environments: an exploratory study

This paper presents the results of an interview‐based study of the use of virtual learning environments (VLEs) among dyslexic students. Interviews were carried out with 12 informants who had been formally diagnosed as dyslexic. The informants were either enrolled in a university or college programme, or had graduated less than a year before the interview. The findings reveal that dyslexic students experience a number of challenges associated with VLE use, including information overload, imperfect word processing tools, inadequate search functions, and having to relate to more than one system at a time.     

Effectiveness of learning in online academic courses compared with face‐to‐face courses in higher education

This study examined the effectiveness of 3 online courses compared with the same 3 courses in a face‐to‐face (F2F) format, which had the same characteristics (e.g., the same instructor and final exam content and place). Effectiveness was examined by utilizing a wide range of variables, including 2 objective measures (N = 968): grades and completion rate; and 9 subjective measures (N = 360): 7 measures include instructional aspects (course structure, learning content, lessons watched, assignments, communication), engagement, and satisfaction. Findings indicate significant differences between online and F2F courses in most of the examined variables. Students in the online courses reported better understanding of the course structure, better communication with the course staff, watching the videos lessens more, and higher engagement and satisfaction. Students in the F2F courses reported better contribution of the learning content. Students' final grades were higher in the online courses, and no differences were found in the completion rate. The findings suggest that in many of the examined effectiveness aspects, online courses are as effective as, or more effective than, F2F courses. Interpretations of the findings are discussed.     

Correlating the effects of flow and telepresence in virtual worlds: Enhancing our understanding of user behavior in game-based learning

Recent research on online learning suggests that virtual worlds are becoming an important environment to observe the experience of flow. From these simulated spaces, researchers may gather a deeper understanding of cognition in the context of game-based learning. Csikszentmihalyi (1997) describes flow as a feeling of increased psychological immersion and energized focus, with outcomes that evoke disregard for external pressures and the loss of time consciousness, issuing in a sense of pleasure. Past studies suggest that flow is encountered in an array of activities and places, including those in virtual worlds. The authors’ posit that flow in virtual worlds, such as Second Life (SL), can be positively associated with degrees of the cognitive phenomenon of immersion and telepresence. Flow may also contribute to a better attitude and behavior during virtual game-based learning. This study tested three hypotheses related to flow and telepresence, using SL. Findings suggest that both flow and telepresence are experienced in SL and that there is a significant correlation between them. These findings shed light on the complex interrelationships and interactions that lead to flow experience in virtual gameplay and learning, while engendering hope that learners, who experience flow, may acquire an improved attitude of learning online.     

WebTOP: A 3D interactive system for teaching and learning optics

WebTOP is a three-dimensional, Web-based, interactive computer graphics system that helps instructors teach and students learn about waves and optics. Current subject areas include waves, geometrical optics, reflection and refraction, polarization, interference, diffraction, lasers, and scattering. Some of the topics covered are suited for introductory level physics students while others are suited for intermediate optics students. WebTOP is developed with a flexible interface to suit the various needs of instructors and students. Many of the features lend themselves to classroom use or self-guided study. WebTOP is implemented using VRML, Java, JavaScript, and VRML’s Java EAI.     

Effects of traditional,blended and e‐learning on students' achievement in higher education

The study investigates the effect of e‐learning, blended learning and classroom learning on students’ achievement. Two experimental groups together with a control group from Umm Al‐Qura University in Saudi Arabia were identified randomly. To assess students’ achievement in the different groups, pre‐ and post‐achievement tests were used. The results of the study (N = 148) show that there was a statistically significant difference between the three methods in terms of students’ achievement favouring the blended learning method (n = 55) with a substantial effect size of 1.34 (Hedges’ g). No significant difference was found between the e‐learning (n = 43) and traditional learning groups (n = 50) in terms of students’ achievement and with a negligible effect size of 0.02.     

Appropriating virtual learning environments: A study of teacher tactics

In research on Virtual Learning Environments (VLEs), it has been shown that teachers often do not explore VLEs to their full potential and only adopt a limited set of the available tools. In this article, we approach teachers’ design of VLE learning activities as end user development. We describe a study of Toledo, a virtual learning environment used across several higher education institutions in Belgium. Using a combination of a semiotic, multimodal analysis and an in-depth user study with 24 respondents, we provide a detailed account of how teachers appropriate the learning environment to suit their needs. Combining the insights from the semiotic investigation and the user research, we analyze how user appropriations can be explained as practices emerging from both how the platform communicates, and contextual factors. The study showed that some teachers design very specific learning activities using the VLE - not by using the dedicated VLE tool, but by reinterpreting more generic tools. These appropriation tactics concentrate platform use in a limited number of tools, even when teachers do use more complex learning activities. These results have implications for the design of VLEs: rather than offering a wide range of tools targeted at specific learning activities, VLEs could concentrate on providing basic communication tools that are open for appropriation.     

Effects of computer-assisted instruction on students’ achievement in Taiwan: A meta-analysis

A meta-analysis was performed to synthesize existing research comparing the effects of computer-assisted instruction (CAI) versus traditional instruction (TI) on students’ achievement in Taiwan. Fifty-two studies were located from four sources, and their quantitative data was transformed into effect size (ES). The overall grand mean of the study-weighted ES for all 52 studies was 0.55. The results suggest that CAI is more effective than TI in Taiwan. In addition, two of the seventeen variables selected for this study (i.e., statistical power, and comparison group) had a statistically significant impact on the mean ES.     

Exploring students' learning styles in relation to their acceptance and attitudes towards using Second Life in education: A case study in Hong Kong

The purpose of this study was to investigate students' learning styles in relation to their acceptance and attitudes towards using Second Life (SL) as a supporting tool for learning in higher education. A total of 32 undergraduate students taking a course called 'Digital Imaging' participated in the study. The participants were first asked to design their own graphics using a range of digital imaging techniques. They were then asked to share the artwork with peers in SL for discussion and conduct a formal presentation as a professional designer on their design in SL. The Index of Learning Styles (ILS) developed by Felder and Soloman (1994) and the Views about SL questionnaire (VSLQ) designed by the author were used to measure participants' learning styles as well as their acceptance and attitudes towards SL, respectively. Quantitative results derived from the questionnaires were validated by qualitative data collected from a follow-up interview with a sample of participants. Major findings from the study indicate that active learners mostly valued the ease of use and usefulness of SL whereas verbal students were mostly satisfied with the communication and identity features in SL. Besides, the study also identified some practical problems with the use of SL in education including insufficient teaching and learning time, limited mode of communication with instructor and inadequate equipment for running SL.     

How cues of what can be done in a virtual world influence learning: An affordance perspective

What we know about learning outcomes for collaborative tasks in virtual environments is a confusing set of results. Many organizations have been hesitant about their use of virtual environments for this reason. Virtual worlds (VWs) have received attention as environments for learning, yet little is known about their attributes, or how they affect learning in collaborative tasks. James Gibson proposed a theory of affordance to explain how cues in an environment are perceived and lead to some course of action. Based on his theory, we developed a model to describe how cues of what can be done in a VW influence learning. In doing so, we focused on the situativity afforded by VWs through context and social facilitation. We showed how VW artifacts and cues make it easier for users to understand the conditions and interactions in a VW.     

The impact of Web3D technologies on medical education and training

This paper provides a survey of medical applications that make use of Web3D technologies, covering the period from 1995 to 2005. We assess the impact that Web3D has made on medical education and training during this time and highlight current and future trends. The applications identified are categorized into: general education tools; tools for diagnosis; procedures training; and collaborative training. A summary of work that has been carried out to validate these tools is also included in the survey.     

Information problem‐solving skills in small virtual groups and learning outcomes

This study investigated the frequency of use of information problem‐solving (IPS) skills and its relationship with learning outcomes. During the course of the study, 40 teachers carried out a collaborative IPS task in small virtual groups in a 4‐week online training course. The status of IPS skills was collected through self‐reports handed in over the course of the 4 weeks. Learning was evaluated by means of open‐ended questionnaires before and after the group task. Three types of knowledge learning were evaluated: declarative, procedural and situational. Teachers exhibited a recurrent use of all skills during the whole collaborative task, although periodic use differed from week to week. Results showed a relationship between some IPS skills and declarative and procedural knowledge. The skills that were statistically significant were share information, read peer's information and analyse information. Implications for learning support and instruction are discussed.     

Investigating factors that influence social presence and learning outcomes in distance higher education

There are many factors that influence distance learning especially in higher education where collaborative and communicative discourse is necessary for pursuing knowledge. Social presence, among other factors, is an important concept to be facilitated, developed and sustained in distance higher education as it promotes and supports discourse based learning. This study examines the relationship among demographic and other variables, social presence and learning satisfaction. Results showed demographic variables, such as gender, online learning experience and work status were not significant factors in terms of influencing on either social presence or learning satisfaction. While media integration and instructor’s quality teaching were significant predictors of both social presence and learning satisfaction, interactivity among participants was a predictor of social presence but not of learning satisfaction. Along with the study findings, some implications were discussed for online learning practitioners in higher education setting.     

Computer-supported team-based learning: The impact of motivation,enjoyment and team contributions on learning outcomes

The benefits of teamwork and collaboration have long been advocated by many educational theories, such as constructivist and social learning models. Among the various applications of collaborative learning, the iterative team-based learning (TBL) process proposed by Michaelsen, Fink, and Knight (2002) has been successfully used in the classroom without computer support. This paper describes the implementation and evaluation results of a classroom application of the TBL process, which was modified to include computer mediation. We call this process computer-supported team-based learning (CS-TBL). This work extends learning in small teams from the traditional classroom to the hybrid classroom where students meet both face-to-face and online by emphasizing the importance of online team interactions. The outcomes are assessed through an evaluation model that considers the impact of motivation, enjoyment and team contributions on learning outcomes. The study results indicate that motivation influences the relationship between team interactions and perceived learning. Enjoyment is affected by motivation and perceptions of team members’ contributions, with the implication that students who perceive that the team interactions are adding value to their education will better enjoy learning and will experience higher-level learning outcomes.