Which goals are driving the Energiewende? Making sense of the German Energy Transformation

In 2010, Germany agreed a plan to increase the share of renewables in power consumption to 80% by 2050, and in 2011 the decision was taken to phase-out nuclear power by 2022. This policy is now widely known as the “Energiewende”. While many global observers consider this program to be primarily driven by the need to tackle climate change, the precise political goals of the Energiewende are, by and large, unclear. In our study we compiled a list of 14 goals put forward in political debates and conducted a “mapping” survey among more than 50 policy experts. We asked them to prioritize the goals based on their personal views and provide arguments for their rankings in ensuing interviews. Our main findings are as follows: (i) a large majority named climate protection among the top-level goals of the Energiewende; at the same time, around 80% of all participants also identified additional goals; (ii) when asked if the Energiewende would make sense even if climate change did not exist, two thirds of the participants agreed, which, when taken with the first finding, demonstrates that the goals and motivations driving the Energiewende are more complex than often assumed. We conclude that for the sake of effective and efficient policies and ever rising climate policy ambition, a public debate and clear specification of the top-level goals are indispensable.     

Nuclear power,climate change and energy security: Exploring British public attitudes

Public attitudes towards nuclear power in the UK have historically been deeply divided, but as concern about climate change and energy security has exerted an increasing influence on British energy policy, nuclear power has been reframed as a low-carbon technology. Previous research has suggested that a significant proportion of people may ‘reluctantly accept’ nuclear power as a means of addressing the greater threat of climate change. Drawing on the results of a national British survey (n=1822), the current study found that attitudes towards nuclear remain divided, with only a minority expressing unconditional acceptance. In general, people who expressed greater concern about climate change and energy security and possessed higher environmental values were less likely to favour nuclear power. However, when nuclear power was given an explicit ‘reluctant acceptance’ framing – allowing people to express their dislike for nuclear power alongside their conditional support – concerns about climate change and energy security became positive predictors of support for nuclear power. These findings suggest that concern about climate change and energy security will only increase acceptance of nuclear power under limited circumstances—specifically once other (preferred) options have been exhausted.     

What do people living in deprived communities in the UK think about household energy efficiency interventions?

While physical interventions such as external wall cladding can improve the energy efficiency of domestic properties, how residents think about and respond to such interventions can influence both their uptake and impact on the household’s energy use. The present research investigated what residents living within deprived communities in Yorkshire and the Humber (United Kingdom) thought about a number of household energy efficiency interventions proposed as part of a project known as “The BIG Energy Upgrade”. The Theory of Planned Behaviour was used as a framework for investigating residents' beliefs. Residents generally felt positive about the proposed interventions and expected that they would lead to financial savings, improve the appearance and warmth of their homes, and sense of pride in the local community. However, while residents intended to adopt energy efficiency interventions if offered them, they were less willing to personally invest in them. Home ownership and the belief in humans' ability to tackle climate change were found to predict willingness to invest. These findings help to understand responses to initiatives that seek to improve the energy efficiency of hard-to-treat homes.     

Foresight analysis of wind power in Turkey

The Turkish wind energy industry is one of the most competitive and fastest growing industries in the energy sector. Industrial energy demands, Kyoto agreement and carbon trade are shown as probable causes. Currently, Turkey has a total installed capacity of about 48.5 GW for electricity from all energy sources. High energy prices and unstable suppliers have stimulated Turkey's growing interest in wind business and wind power. This paper analyzes Turkey's wind energy future perspective and power generation strategy with a view to explaining Delphi approach to wind energy development. In this study, the two‐round Delphi survey was conducted by experts to determine and measure the expectations of the sector representatives through online surveys where a total of 70 experts responded from 24 different locations. The majority of the Delphi survey respondents were from 23 different universities (60%), electricity generation industries (21%), two different governmental organizations (11%), nongovernmental organizations (6%) and other institutions (2%). The article discusses not only the expert sights on wind energy technology but also all bibliometrical approaches. The results showed that Turkey's wind power installed capacity is expected to exceed 40 GW by the end of the 2020 s and in the middle of the 2030 s, and Turkey would be the European leading country in the field of electricity generation from the wind. Copyright © 2011 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

The effect of self-determined motivation on household energy consumption behaviour in a metropolitan area in southern China

Promoting pro-environmental behaviour among individuals could help to mitigate climate change. In this research, we tested the effect of self-determined motivation on pro-environmental behaviours related to household energy consumption. A questionnaire survey was conducted in Hong Kong (n = 1004) to examine the importance of self-determined motivation on pro-environmental behaviours that promote climate change mitigation. Our results indicated that incorporating self-determined motivation into a model of goal-directed behaviour (MGB) improved its predictive power and that both the intrinsic and extrinsic motivations of an individual were important predictors of pro-environmental energy consumption behaviour. The empirical results suggest measures that can be used by the government to motivate residents’ pro-environmental energy consumption behaviours and to achieve the goal of reducing greenhouse gas emissions for a metropolitan area in southern China.     

Farmer willingness to grow switchgrass for energy production

A survey of Tennessee farmers was conducted to analyze their willingness to supply switchgrass to an emerging energy market. The majority of respondents had not heard of growing switchgrass for energy production and roughly half were unsure as to whether they would be willing to grow switchgrass. For those with an opinion about whether they would grow switchgrass, a two limit Tobit model was used to ascertain the effects of various farm and producer characteristics on the share of farmland they would be willing to convert. Higher net farm income per hectare had a negative influence on share, reflecting the opportunity cost of converting land. Younger farmers with higher levels of educational attainment and off-farm incomes were willing to convert a higher share of farmland. Farm size and the use of leased farmland had a negative influence on willingness to convert hectares to switchgrass production. Interestingly, while erosion issues did not appear to influence share, desire to provide wildlife habitat did. Views about on-farm issues, such as market development, use of contracts, or potential harvest limitations under the Conservation Reserve Program influenced conversion share. However, views on broader national policy issues did not significantly influence farmer willingness to convert farmland.     

Turbulent times: tourists’ attitudes towards wind turbines in the Southern Highlands in Iceland

As a response to the threat of climate change, many nations are increasing their use of renewable energy, including wind energy. Large wind farms often conflict with other land uses, particularly tourism, which is a growing industry worldwide. In Iceland, tourism has recently become the largest export sector, with majority of tourists travelling to the country to experience its nature. This paper examines tourists’ opinions and perceptions of wind power development in the Southern Highlands of Iceland and compares how number, size and proximity of wind turbines, and the landscape in which they are situated, influence tourists’ perceptions. The study is based on an on-site questionnaire survey conducted in 2015. The results indicate that one-third of the travellers would be less likely to visit the Southern Highlands if a proposed wind farm were built, and two-thirds think that wind turbines would decrease the area’s attractiveness.     

Perceptions of opinion leaders towards CCS demonstration projects in China

We present results of a major survey of Chinese opinion leaders conducted from March to April 2009, supported by EU–UK–China near zero emissions coal (NZEC) initiative. Respondents were drawn from 27 provinces and regions using an online survey with follow-up face-to-face interviews. A total of 131 experts and decision-makers from 68 key institutions were consulted through online survey. This survey is the first to focus on demonstration projects in particular and is the most geographically diverse. We aim to understand perceptions of applying CCS technologies in the first large-scale CCS demonstration project in China. Though enhanced oil recovery (EOR) and enhanced coal bed methane recovery (ECBM) may not be long-term solutions for CO₂ storage, they were viewed as the most attractive storage technologies for the first CCS demonstration project. With regard to CO₂ capture technology, on the whole, post-combustion (which would be most applicable to the vast majority of existing power plants which are pulverised-coal) received slightly higher support than pre-combustion. More surprising, respondents from both the power and oil industries favoured pre-combustion. There was no consensus regarding the appropriate scale for the first demonstration. A large number of respondents were concerned about the energy penalty associated with CCS and its impact on the long-term sustainability of coal supply in China, although such concerns were much reduced compared with surveys in 2006 and 2008.     

Power to the people

Even before September 11, the world's governments were beginning to look at energy policy in the light of new pressures. Fluctuating oil and gas prices had already brought energy security to the fore in some countries, and the declining nuclear industry is creating fear of a looming gap in electricity generation capacity on both sides of the Atlantic. Finally, the need to reduce greenhouse gas emissions has been highlighted again by the Third Assessment Report of the Inter-Governmental Panel on Climate Change. The United States response to these pressures has been to ignore the climate change issue and retreat into an old style predict and provide mentality to tackle energy security. It forecasts the need for up to 1900 new large scale power stations to meet its escalating demand for energy. But if climate change is taken seriously, as the rest of world's governments do, more innovative methods of delivering secure energy supplies, whilst cutting greenhouse gases, have to be found. Clearly renewable energy will be at the forefront of such a strategy, but the implications for energy policy go far deeper than just replacing one set of electricity generators with another. The whole policy framework will need an overhaul. Chris Hewett, Institute for Public Policy Research, UK looks at options for the road ahead and how decentralised energy systems can help deliver the sort of low carbon economy needed to prevent climate change.     

Consumers' willingness to pay for renewable and nuclear energy: A comparative analysis between the US and Japan

This paper examines consumers' willingness to pay for nuclear and renewable electricity as two alternatives to fossil fuels for the reduction of greenhouse gas emissions. We conduct a choice experiment of consumer-stated preferences on the basis of an online survey in four US states and Japan after the Fukushima nuclear plant accident. First, the results suggest that US consumers' willingness to pay for a 1% decrease in greenhouse gas emissions is $0.31 per month, which is similar to the results for the US a decade ago. Japanese consumers show a slightly lower willingness to pay of $0.26 per month. Second, the average consumer in both countries expresses a negative preference for increases in nuclear power in the fuel mix (to a greater extent in Japan). Third, renewable energy sources were endorsed by both US and Japanese consumers, who show a willingness to pay $0.71 and $0.31 per month for a 1% increase in the use of renewable source energy. This study also examines the differences in respondents' characteristics. Approximately 60% of the US respondents who did not change their perception concerning the use of nuclear energy subsequent to the Fukushima nuclear crisis have almost no preference for variation in nuclear power, which is in stark contrast to the Japanese respondents' opposition to nuclear energy.     

Coupling of copper–chloride hybrid thermochemical water splitting cycle with a desalination plant for hydrogen production from nuclear energy

Energy and environmental concerns have motivated research on clean energy resources. Nuclear energy has the potential to provide a significant share of energy supply without contributing to environmental emissions and climate change. Nuclear energy has been used mainly for electric power generation, but hydrogen production via thermochemical water decomposition provides another pathway for the utilization of nuclear thermal energy. One option for nuclear-based hydrogen production via thermochemical water decomposition uses a copper–chloride (Cu–Cl) cycle. Another societal concern relates to supplies of fresh water. Thus, to avoid causing one problem while solving another, hydrogen could be produced from seawater rather than limited fresh water sources. In this study we analyze a coupling of the Cu–Cl cycle with a desalination plant for hydrogen production from nuclear energy and seawater. Desalination technologies are reviewed comprehensively to determine the most appropriate option for the Cu–Cl cycle and a thermodynamic analysis and several parametric studies of this coupled system are presented for various configurations.     

Energy parks for former nuclear weapons sites? Public preferences at six regional locations and the United States as a whole

The United States Department of Energy has proposed building energy parks at some of its former nuclear sites. These parks would develop technologies to enhance renewable energy sources, nuclear, coal, and others, as well as technologies to manage the waste, and transmit the energy. A survey of 3200 United States residents assessed public reaction to the policy. Half of the samples were gathered at four locations each centered on a major DOE facility; 25% were obtained at two other regions; and 25% were a national sample. As a whole, respondents from the four DOE-centered sites were more supportive of the concept than their counterparts, especially those respondents who lived in counties within 20 miles of the DOE site. Their support is associated with knowledge of the existing DOE facilities, desire for greater reliance on renewable energy sources and nuclear power, and a belief that the environment will improve during the next 25 years. They disproportionately trust authorities responsible for managing major energy facilities and assess the economic impact of these facilities to be positive. The challenge to proponents of energy parks is to broaden the support among the 60% that had more lukewarm or neutral responses to the idea and to place the proposal in the larger national energy policy context.     

Tourist preferences for fuel cell vehicle rental: going green with hydrogen on the island of Tenerife

Using a discrete choice experiment (DCE), a survey of international tourists on the island of Tenerife is conducted to examine preferences for fuel cell vehicle (FCV) rental while on vacation. Survey respondents were generally supportive of FCVs and willing to hire one as part of their trip but for most individuals this is contingent on an adequate fuel station infrastructure. A latent class model was used to identify three distinct groups; one of which potentially represent early adopters – they have a high willingness-to-pay (WTP) for green hydrogen and are more likely to accept a low number of fuel stations but it could be challenging to convince them to use FCVs if they are not run on green hydrogen.     

South Korean citizen's preferences on renewable energy support and cooperation policy for North Korea

To solve the continuing North Korean energy problem, the international community has provided, almost continuously, energy aid such as heavy fuel oil. Despite the large amount of energy aid North Korea has received, there is no evidence that the North Korean energy problem has gotten any better. Unless there is an structural energy reconstruction within North Korea, it portends the energy crisis there will only be exacerbated. Thus, North Korean energy solution cannot continue to remain at the level of providing direct aid, but should encompass a sustainable energy system that can answer the North's energy needs in mid- to long-term. Seeking a more permanent solution to solve the North Korean energy crisis, we contend renewable energy (RE) is a suitable option that can be used to build a sustainable energy system that North Korea can self-manage. From the South Korean energy policy perspective, that could be used to provide mid- and long-term energy solution for North Korea and fundamentally solve its energy crisis, this research sought to assess the South Korean residents’ preferences on burdening the cost associated with implementing a South Korean Government (SKG)-led RE support and cooperation policy for the North. We conducted a survey to assess the majority voting trends and approximately 30% of the respondents answered they had “no desire to pay.” The result showed that it would be difficult to fund an energy policy by making the South Korean populace directly shoulder the cost.     

美国核能辩论现状与政策趋向分析

美国国内在是否利用核能发电这个问题上一直存在争议,拥核派和反核派的分歧主要是在核电成本是否高、核能是否安全以及核能是否属于清洁能源等方面。受日本核危机影响,美国核能辩论的重点转向核能安全,主要围绕核电站抵御自然灾害的能力、核废料储存、是否应该新建核电站以及延长现有核电站运营期限等问题展开。由于历次重大核事故后,新建核电站成本势必上升,加之美国各州新建核电站积极性不高,国际大环境也不利于拥核派,同时核能面临化石能源和可再生能源的激烈竞争,因此短期内美国核能开发步伐势必会放慢。但是从长期看,核能仍将是美国能源战略的重点之一,究其原因,发展核能是美国能源安全与经济发展的需要,也是应对气候变化的需要,另外,拥核派的积极游说和公关行动、反核派内部立场出现分化以及日本核危机的长期影响有限等也都是其原因之一。我国是世界上在建核反应堆数量最多的国家,但是围绕核能的公开辩论却很少,这不利于我国核能的开发。核能的辩论过程,也是核能知识普及的过程,只有对核能有深入全面的认识,才能减少对核能非理性的恐惧。我国绝不能因为一次核事故而改变战略方向,而应在吸取教训的基础上,在保证绝对安全的前提下,继续发展核能。     

Assessment of climate change impact on building energy use and mitigation measures in subtropical climates

Likely increase in energy use in air-conditioned office buildings due to climate change in subtropical Hong Kong was estimated for two emissions scenarios. Towards the end of the 21st century (i.e. 2091-2100), the average annual building energy use would be 6.6% and 8.1% more than that in 1979-2008 for low and medium forcing, respectively. Potential mitigation measures concerning the building envelope, internal condition, lighting load density (LLD) and chiller plant were considered. Thermal insulation to the external wall would not be effective to mitigate the expected increase in building energy use due to climate change. Controlling the amount of solar heat gain through the window would be a better option. Lowering the current LLD of 15 W/m² to about 13 W/m² would result in substantial energy savings because of the reduction in electricity consumption for both electric lighting and air-conditioning. As for the chiller plant, the coefficient of performance (COP) should be improved from the current minimum requirement of 4.7 to at least 5.5 to alleviate the impact of climate change. Raising the summer set point temperature (SST) to 25.5 °C or higher would have high energy saving and hence mitigation potential, which could be readily applied to both new and existing buildings.     

Public attitudes to climate change and carbon mitigation—Implications for energy-associated behaviours

This work explores public opinions regarding climate change and mitigation options and examines how psychological factors, such as attitudes, norms, and willingness to pay, determine self-reported energy-efficient behaviour. The aim is to create knowledge for the design and implementation of policy measures. The results of an opinion poll conducted in 2005 and 2010 are compared. The number of respondents favouring new technologies as a way to reduce emissions was substantially lower in 2010 than in 2005, whereas there was an increase in the number of people who acknowledged that lifestyle changes are necessary to counteract climate changes. This indicates an increased awareness among the public of the need for lifestyle changes, which could facilitate implementation of policies promoting environmental behaviour. Renewable energy and energy saving measures were ranked as the top two measures for mitigating climate change in both polls. In determining which energy behaviours of the public are determined by psychological factors, an analysis of the 2010 survey revealed that respondents with pro-environmental attitudes towards global warming favour significantly increased use of renewable energy technologies and greater engagement in energy-efficient behaviours.     

The predominance of economic development in the support for large-scale wind farms in the U.S. Great Plains

Wind energy is one of the fastest growing sources of power generation in the world. While general public and political support for wind energy is often high, siting wind farms frequently raises concerns in local communities, and individual projects often fail because of effective public opposition. This paper presents the results of a postal and online survey questionnaire that explores public perceptions of wind energy in two of the most important states for wind development, Texas and Iowa. The goal is a better understanding of public reactions to large-scale wind developments as a prerequisite of more widespread use of renewable energy resources. We found a high level of public support for wind energy, with more than two-thirds of respondents being in favor of building more wind farms either in their community or within the U.S. as a whole. Given that the majority of respondents had a very high level of concern for the general environment, we also found that almost two-thirds of respondents counter-intuitively indicated that producing electricity using fossil fuels is not detrimental to the environment, and that they had little concern for global climate change. Our results suggest that arguing for more renewable sources of energy based on reducing our carbon footprint is less persuasive in these communities than simply approaching it from the perspective of wind being a clean and safe source of energy. More than two-thirds of respondents felt their county had benefited economically from the wind farms and that they were a source of job creation in the county. Support for wind power in these communities is associated far more with socioeconomic factors than foundational aesthetic or moral values, with wind farms perceived as the vehicle that will reverse economic decline.     

Woodland owners' attitudes towards energy from forest biomass in a carbon-intensive jurisdiction: Case study of Nova Scotia,Canada

The use of forest biomass in thermal generation processes has been recognized by the Government of Nova Scotia (NS) as one option that could help meet its renewable electricity goals (25% by 2015 and 40% by 2020). Over half of the woodland in NS is owned by small-private woodland owners (51%), indicating that they could significantly influence the future of NS forests and its potential use for energy purposes. This paper presents the results of a survey of small-woodland owners on their attitudes towards using energy from forest biomass. 489 small-woodland owners responded to mail-out surveys and 14 rural community members participated in three focus groups. Three major findings emerged. First, it was found that the acceptability of using forest products varied depending on multiple factors – the source of biomass, harvesting methods, and [predicted] end-use. Second, forest sustainability and keeping resources local were the two most important concerns amongst respondents. Finally, respondents felt that better collaboration with other stakeholders and education around the issues would be the best strategies for overcoming these concerns. The paper also highlights the barriers and drivers as perceived by the woodland owners as they relate to the possibility of using more biomass for energy in the future.     

The influence of the Energy Performance Certificate: The Dutch case

All European Union Member States require an Energy Performance Certificate (EPC) when buildings are constructed, sold and rented. At its introduction the EPC was considered a pioneering instrument, one that would help overcome an information deficit hindering consumer interest in energy efficient dwellings. Now that the EPC has been implemented for several years it is possible to examine its impact. This research draws on data from ex-ante and ex-post assessments of the EPC in a number of countries and presents the results of a survey of Dutch private dwelling purchasers. This survey was based on two sample populations, one received an EPC during property transaction and another did not. Differences were sought between the two samples in a number of areas relating to the adoption of energy efficiency measures. Results show that many projections about the impact of the EPC have fallen short. The EPC was found to have a weak influence, especially pre-purchase. The potential of the EPC in driving energy efficiency improvement in the existing stock is doubted especially if it continues to act independent from a mix of instruments designed to tackle multiple barriers. It is argued that the energy saving potential of existing dwellings, applauded in climate change policy, will remain unexploited if it continues to be assessed subjectively by householders.