Weight gain through self-control procedures.

21 underweight (at least 10%) undergraduates were assigned to either a self-reinforcement condition, a self-punishment condition, or to a discussion-reflection control condition. Ss received 1 weekly treatment session over a 5-wk period. Following treatment, the self-reinforcement groups gained significantly more pounds (kilograms) than either the self-punishment or the control group. This effect was maintained at a 12-wk follow-up. The punishment and control groups did not differ significantly at posttest or at follow-up. Similar results were obtained when percentage of weight change was analyzed, with the treatment effect significant at follow-up. (17 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Behavior modification of studying through study skills advice and self-control procedures.

Investigated the efficacy of 2 behavioral self-control procedures as additions to the typical treatment for college students' study Black skills advice. A between-Ss pyramid design was used with 108 undergraduates, with the pyramid entailing combinations of self-control procedures as treatment additions to the study skills advice. The 2 control and 4 treatment groups indicate (a) family (b) no-treatment control, (c) study skills advice, (d) study skills advice plus stimulus control, (e) study skills advice plus self-monitoring, and (f) study skills advice plus stimulus control plus self-monitoring. Treatments were delivered primarily via typed handouts. In terms of course exam scores, it was predicted that self-monitoring would be an effective treatment addition to study skills advice would be superior to the control groups and that these controls would be equivalent. Results support these predictions. (21 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Modification of performance on the Rod-and-Frame Test through token reinforcement procedures.

In a 2-phase investigation, the technique of successive approximation (shaping) and fading were combined with contingent positive reinforcement in the form of tokens to modify Rod-and-Frame Test (RFT) performance of 60 hospitalized chronic male patients. A similar group of patients was subjected to the same number of trials without these techniques to control for practice effects. RFT performance was significantly improved, and the improvement remained consistent on a 1-mo follow-up. Some evidence for practice effects leading to improved performance also appeared. Results are discussed in terms of their relevance to the study of educative procedures and to the basic theoretical construct of "psychological differentiation" with which RFT performance is closely allied. (16 ref.) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Generalization and maintenance of appropriate behavior through self-control.

8 7-11 yr old disruptive children attended an after school reading tutorial program 1 hr a day for 72 days. After baseline, Ss evaluated their academic and social behavior. A token program was instituted and then modified to include the following procedures: (a) Points and backup reinforcers were made contingent upon accurate self-ratings; (b) the requirement of accurately matching teacher ratings was faded until the children had complete control over point distribution; and (c) backup reinforcers were also faded and eliminated. While there was a lack of generalization of appropriate social behavior to the regular classroom situation, generalization was demonstrated in the 15-min control period of every class, and maintenance was demonstrated in the final week of the program after all backup reinforcers were withdrawn. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Two self-control procedures in the reduction of targeted and nontargeted anxieties.

Compared the effects of relaxation as self-control and a self-control variant of systematic desensitization (SD) in reducing targeted (test anxiety) and nontargeted anxieties with those of wait-list and no-treatment expectancy controls; 12 male and 57 female undergraduates were Ss. Immediately following counseling and at follow-up, groups given relaxation as self-control and SD both reported significantly less debilitating test anxiety and significantly more facilitating test anxiety than controls. In a stressful analog testing condition, self-control groups reported significantly less worry, emotionality, and state test anxiety than controls. While no performance differences were found in the analog situation, relaxation as self-control and modified SD Ss had significantly higher psychology grades than the no-treatment expectancy group. Grades of the wait-list group were not significantly different from those of other groups. The relaxation as self-control group showed reduction and maintenance on both measures of nontargeted anxiety relative to the controls. The modified SD group showed posttreatment reduction on both nontargeted anxiety measures but maintenance on only one. (30 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Behavioral self-control of smoking through aversive conditioning and self-management.

Evaluated self-control variants of aversive conditioning and self-management procedures for the modification of cigarette smoking. 16–37 yr old smokers (90% undergraduates) were assigned to 10 treatment conditions arranged in a 2?×?5 (Self-Management?×?Aversive Conditioning) factorial design; another 20 smokers were included in a no-apply control group. Five varieties of aversive conditioning were used: aversive conditioning, placebo shock, therapist-delivered shock, S-delivered shock, and imagined aversive scene. Half of the smokers under each variety of aversive conditioning received additional training in a package of self-management techniques. Smokers were seen by individual therapists in 6 sessions over 3 wks. The treatment effects of aversive conditioning were negligible, and in some instances they were surpassed by the effects of controls for nonspecific treatment factors and placebo effects. The addition of self-management to aversive conditioning significantly reduced smoking beyond aversive conditioning effects over a 20-wk follow-up. However, no treatment combination led to reductions in smoking beyond controls for nonspecific factors, nor were reductions maintained over follow-up times. Implications for behavioral self-control strategies are discussed. (49 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Where self-control comes from: On the development of self-control and its relationship to deviance over time.

[Correction Notice: An erratum for this article was reported in Vol 46(3) of Developmental Psychology (see record 2010-08074-015). the keys for Figures 3 and 5 on page 252 are incorrect. The corrected keys are printed below. The figures have been updated without the application of a transformation, permitting a more straightforward interpretation.] The current study tested a set of interrelated theoretical propositions based on self-control theory (M. R. Gottfredson & T. Hirschi 1990). Data were collected on 1,155 children at 4.5 years, at 8.5 years (3rd grade), and at 10.5 years (5th grade) as part of the National Institute of Child Health and Human Development longitudinal study over a 6-year period. Findings based on simple structural equation models and latent growth modeling of developmental trajectories suggest that (a) there was great construct stability of self-control and deviance over the 6-year period, (b) there was positive growth in self-control trajectory over time, (c) parenting predicted this trajectory but also explained variability in self-control at initial status, (d) there was a declining deviance trajectory over time, (e) self-control at initial status reduced the unexplained deviance variance by 44.8%, and (f) both the intercept and slope factors shared about 75% of the variance based on growth-to-growth curve predictive models of self-control and deviance. Findings are discussed in terms of their implications for self-control theory and future empirical work. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Two procedures for relaxation as self-control in the treatment of communication apprehension.

An in vivo procedure for relaxation as self-control, and a procedure for self-control modification of desensitization (modified desensitization) were compared to a no-treatment control. Ss were 34 female and 4 male undergraduates. Effectiveness was gauged by the reduction of (a) the targeted anxiety (communication apprehension) and (b) the nontargeted fear of negative evaluation and assertiveness. Results show that modified desensitization, compared to the control, significantly decreased communication anxiety and fear of negative evaluation and significantly increased assertiveness. Relaxation as self-control led to significantly decreased communication apprehension, significantly increased assertiveness, and nearly significant reduction in fear of negative evaluation ( p     

Two self-control procedures in the reduction of targeted and nontargeted anxieties: A year later.

Reports a 12-mo follow-up of a study by the authors (see record 1979-29126-001) that investigated the effects of self-control interventions on targeted (test) and nontargeted anxieties. One yr after the initial 6-wk follow-up, relaxation-as-self-control and modified-desensitization groups showed maintenance of reductions in debilitating test anxiety and continued to report significantly less debilitating test anxiety than the no-treatment control group. No significant differences among groups were found for either facilitating test anxiety or GPAs. Both self-control groups tended to show maintenance of nontargeted anxiety reductions, with relaxation-as-self-control Ss reporting significantly less nontargeted anxiety than controls; the differences on nontargeted anxiety measures only approached significance for Ss in the modified desensitization condition. (12 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Relative reading achievement: A longitudinal study of 187 children from first through sixth grades.

This article reports results of a longitudinal study of relative reading achievement of 87 boys and 100 girls from 1st through 6th grades. Gates-MacGinitie Reading Tests (W. H. MacGinitie, J Kamons, R. L. Kowalski, R. K. MacGinitie, & T. MacKay, 1980) data were drawn from records of 1 rural school district in Eastern Canada. There was a systematic relationship between gender and reading categorization in Grades 1-3, with more boys below average, and no systematic relationship in Grades 4-6. Probabilities of 6th-grade reading-achievement categorization conditioned on 1st-grade achievement were used to challenge the stability of reading categorization reported in previous studies. The courses of relative reading achievement over the 6 grades of key subgroups of children were followed to show how reading-achievement categorization changes. The implications include a case for early reading intervention and for reconsideration of the view that relative reading achievement is largely immutable. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

"Where self-control comes from: On the development of self-control and its relationship to deviance over time": Correction.

Reports an error in "Where self-control comes from: On the development of self-control and its relationship to deviance over time" by Alexander T. Vazsonyi and Li Huang (Developmental Psychology, 2010[Jan], Vol 46[1], 245-257). The keys for Figures 3 and 5 on page 252 are incorrect. The corrected keys are provided. The figures have been updated without the application of a transformation, permitting a more straightforward interpretation. (The following abstract of the original article appeared in record 2009-24671-014.) The current study tested a set of interrelated theoretical propositions based on self-control theory (M. R. Gottfredson & T. Hirschi 1990). Data were collected on 1,155 children at 4.5 years, at 8.5 years (3rd grade), and at 10.5 years (5th grade) as part of the National Institute of Child Health and Human Development longitudinal study over a 6-year period. Findings based on simple structural equation models and latent growth modeling of developmental trajectories suggest that (a) there was great construct stability of self-control and deviance over the 6-year period, (b) there was positive growth in self-control trajectory over time, (c) parenting predicted this trajectory but also explained variability in self-control at initial status, (d) there was a declining deviance trajectory over time, (e) self-control at initial status reduced the unexplained deviance variance by 44.8%, and (f) both the intercept and slope factors shared about 75% of the variance based on growth-to-growth curve predictive models of self-control and deviance. Findings are discussed in terms of their implications for self-control theory and future empirical work. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Learning to read and write: A longitudinal study of 54 children from first through fourth grades.

Examined the Simple View of reading and writing. Of particular concern were these questions: Do the same children remain poor readers year after year? Do the same children remain poor writers year after year? What skills do the poor readers lack? What skills do the poor writers lack? What factors seem to keep poor readers from improving? What factors seem to keep poor writers from improving? The probability that a child would remain a poor reader at the end of 4th grade if the child was a poor reader at the end of 1st grade was .88. Early writing skill did not predict later writing skill as well as early reading ability predicted later reading ability. Children who become poor readers entered 1st grade with little phonemic awareness. By the end of 4th grade, the poor readers had still not achieved the level of decoding skill that the good readers had achieved at the beginning of 2nd grade. Good readers read considerably more than the poor readers both in and out of school, which appeared to contribute to the good readers' growth in some reading and writing skills. Poor readers tended to become poor writers. The Simple View received support in accounting for reading and writing development through 4th grade. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Construal levels and self-control.

The authors propose that self-control involves making decisions and behaving in a manner consistent with high-level versus low-level construals of a situation. Activation of high-level construals (which capture global, superordinate, primary features of an event) should lead to greater self-control than activation of low-level construals (which capture local, subordinate, secondary features). In 6 experiments using 3 different techniques, the authors manipulated construal levels and assessed their effects on self-control and underlying psychological processes. High-level construals led to decreased preferences for immediate over delayed outcomes, greater physical endurance, stronger intentions to exert self-control, and less positive evaluations of temptations that undermine self-control. These results support a construal-level analysis of self-control. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Determinants of justification and self-control.

The authors propose that people use 2 routes in justifying self-gratification: 1st through hard work or excellence (entitlement) and the 2nd through the attainment of vices without depleting income. This framework was tested using real tasks and choices adopted from prior research on self-control. The results indicate that (a) higher effort and (bogus) excellence feedback increase preferences for vice rewards, but these effects are reversed or attenuated when the interchangeability of effort and income is implied; (b) willingness to pay in effort is greater for vices than virtues, but willingness to pay in income is higher for virtues; and (c) these effects are magnified among individuals with stronger (chronic or manipulated) guilt. The authors discuss the ability of the justification routes to explain the findings of prior self-control research. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Increasing the maintenance of self-control treatments through faded counselor contact and high information feedback.

In many counseling studies, follow-up data indicate that clients have abandoned treatment procedures and their initial progress has deteriorated. The present experiment explored 2 procedures for enhancing treatment maintenance: fading counselor contact and increasing information feedback. 97 volunteer college students concerned about academic underachievement participated. A bibliocounseling system was employed involving 4 behavioral self-control groups, a study skills advice group, and a no-treatment control group. The design also included a no-contact control group of 21 nonvolunteers. Grade and questionnaire results showed faded contact was superior to steady contact for enhancing treatment maintenance. Increasing information feedback about treatment effectiveness did not affect maintenance. Self-control and study skills advice groups were superior to control groups. Results suggest that counselors should consider fading their contact with clients. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Modification of moral judgment through role playing.

Studied 42 male and 54 female undergraduates to examine the impact of actual role playing on the change of moral judgment maturity (as assessed by L. Kohlberg in 1969). Ss showed both immediate and delayed increases in moral judgment maturity when role playing a moral dilemma against an opponent who employed reasoning above the S's initially assessed stage. Change scores exceeded those of control groups who either performed extraneous tasks or who passively received role-playing arguments. More change was exhibited by Ss at the lower stages. The flexibility of S's responses during role playing was associated with immediate but not delayed change in moral judgment maturity. Ss did not show greater change in response to reasoning 1 stage higher than their own (vs 2 stages higher or 1 stage lower) as had been previously observed by E. Turiel (see record 1966-07567-001). No sex differences were observed in initial stages or in amount of change. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Action identification of drinking and self-control.

A number of investigators have proposed that self-control over addictive behaviors may be influenced by the way individuals mentally represent their actions. Previous research based on questionnaires has suggested that those who report higher-level identifications of their alcohol use behavior may exhibit more difficulty controlling their alcohol use (Wegner, Vallacher, & Dizadji, 1989). However, it is unclear whether this association is because of characteristic ways of mentally representing specific drinking events or the fact that those who have more impaired control consume more alcohol and drink across a broader array of situations. The current study sought to address this question by examining the association between impaired control over alcohol and action identification of drinking behavior in a structured laboratory drinking task. Ninety-one young adult hazardous drinkers (21–35 years) completed the Impaired Control Over Alcohol Scale (Heather, Tebbut, Mattick, & Zamir, 1993) and an alcohol consumption task. Participants then completed a Likert scale measure to assess action identification of their drinking behavior. Results showed that those who reported greater impaired control over alcohol experienced the drinking task at higher-level action identification even when accounting for alcohol consumption variables. These findings are consistent with the view that higher-level identification of alcohol use behavior may hinder self-control (Wegner et al., 1989), and that self-management approaches may be enhanced through strategies to address mental representation of action. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Generalized self-control of delay and effort.

Studied the effects of delayed reward and rewarded effort on subsequent generalized self-control involving delay and effort in 88 2nd and 3rd graders. Different groups of Ss received immediate reward or delayed reward for low effort or for high effort on a combination of tasks that involved object counting, picture memory, and shape matching. Self-control involving delay was measured by providing the Ss with choices between waiting for a large reward vs receiving a small reward without waiting, and self-control involving effort was measured by means of choices between copying nonsense words for a large reward vs receiving a small reward without copying. Delayed reward increased subsequent self-control involving delay without affecting self-control of effort. Rewarded high effort increased subsequent self-control involving effort without affecting self-control of delay. Results suggest that (a) adaptation to delay reduces its aversiveness and (b) the degree of effort sustained in rewarded tasks becomes learned and generalizes across behaviors. It is concluded that the generalized effects of delayed reward and rewarded high effort may contribute to individual differences in the willingness to postpone gratification in pursuit of long-term goals. (72 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Roaming through methodology. X. The testing of diagnostic procedures

In this era of evidence-based medicine, diagnostic tests cannot escape close scrutiny of their effectiveness. Sensitivity and specificity have up till now played a central role in the evaluation of diagnostic tests. These terms are not without their shortcomings when it comes to the characterisation of a test's true worth for patients. Randomised clinical trials are increasingly used for evaluation of medical tests and outlining of strategy. The indirect relationship between test results and health outcome creates additional challenges for designers of such trials.