Mental illness and mental retardation: Message from the President of the United States relative to mental illness and mental retardation.

2 health problems of critical size and tragic impact are mental illness and mental retardation. "There are now about 800,000 such patients in this Nation's institutions—600,000 for mental illness and over 200,000 for mental retardation." A 3-fold attack is proposed: (a) Ascertain causes and eradicate them. (b) Strengthen underlying resources of knowledge and of skilled manpower. (c) Strengthen and improve facilities serving the mentally ill and mentally retarded. A national program for mental health is proposed which emphasizes comprehensive community mental health centers, improved care in state mental institutions, and expansion of research activities and increase in professional manpower. A national program to combat mental retardation emphasizing prevention, community services, and research is also proposed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Reply to Silverman.

Responds to commentary by I. Silverman (see record 2007-08963-001) entitled "Review of Pure types are rare": Comment on book review. I do not think that either one of us will change his position, and therefore it is up to the interested (yet disinterested) reader to adjudicate our dispute by checking Professor Silverman's book and his references. In the process, the reader will be forced to consider the thought-provoking implications for our mental health system of some of the incidents which the author describes so vividly, and that will not be a bad thing. There is one point, however, which is worth pursuing further here, for Professor Silverman persists in an elementary statistical fallacy. Let us take the situation which he cites, where the base rate for diagnosing schizophrenia is 50%. Suppose with the same base rate the degree of agreement is in fact 53%; this is far above chance level. It must be emphasized, however, that the 53% agreement under discussion came not from a study where the base rate for diagnosing schizophrenia was 50%, but from one where the conditions were far more stringent since the base rate for diagnosing schizophrenia was around 20%. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Psychology and mental retardation.

The history of mental retardation as a focus within our discipline reflects a long, tortuous, and mostly honorable involvement with conceptions of intelligence and handicap and with parables of ethical treatment. The articles in this special section sum up past progress, assess current conceptions and controversies, and challenge the science and practice of psychology in this demanding field of human concern. An essential message of all of the articles in this special section should be discernible as a common theme: The study of mental retardation is part and parcel of the mainstream of American psychology. Concerns about the nature of intelligence and its determinants, for example, are equally the concerns of those who deal with normal or even advanced children and adults. Findings about the impact of living conditions on the functioning of retarded individuals have implications for all of us. Psychologists and other scientists with diverse points of view will find much of relevance to their own work in this forum. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Introduction to special section: Mental retardation and mental illness.

Historically, the perceived relation between mental illness and mental retardation has undergone substantial changes. During the past 2 centuries, clinical observations and systematic research addressing these 2 constructs have developed along separate lines. Consequently, the pathogenesis and treatment of psychopathology, emotional disorders, and behavior problems experienced by individuals with mental retardation have not been the purview of mainstream clinical psychology. This article initiates a special section on mental retardation and mental illness to provide up-to-date summaries of various key clinical and research issues regarding this population (i.e., individuals with "dual diagnoses"). (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Review of Psychopathology in the mentally retarded.

Reviews the book, Psychopathology in the mentally retarded by Johnny L. Matson and Rowland P. Barrett (see record 1985-97358-000). This book is an important contribution to the available literature on emotional and behavioral disorders in clients with the additional disability of mental retardation. This text is intended to provide the clinician and researcher with a broad view of existing empirical data dealing with mentally retarded individuals who exhibit psychopathology. As such, it provides a valuable review of much empirical research, especially that with a clear behavioral formulation. The text also is updated to include a DSM-III formulation of psychiatric disorders. The book is successful in achieving the goal of providing broad, empirical data. The book would be a wise purchase for the skilled clinician, although it is not a clinical handbook or "how-to" manual. The behaviorally oriented clinician will be most comfortable with the general approach and organization of the material. The book is essential to the library of the researcher in the field. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Reply to Mahrer.

Replies to Mahrer's response (see record 2007-09057-001) to the current author's book review (see record 2007-09053-001). Mahrer raises some important questions and submits that different approaches differ significantly in the categories they use to make sense of what clients do, and that each has its own way of eliciting, listening to and observing what the client says and does. I agree that approaches differ on these features and believe that what we listen for and how we make sense of what we hear is the most fundamental aspect of any therapeutic approach. In fact training in an approach involves not only learning the intervention skills of the approach, which is the easy part, but learning when and how to use the intervention, which is based on listening and process diagnosis. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Psychology in mental retardation: Past and present.

"For purposes of 'before-and-after' comparisons, the membership Directory of the American Association on Mental Deficiency (AAMD, 1952, 1962) was examined. The tabulations show that in 1952, 26% of AAMD psychology members were qualified at the doctoral level. By 1962, 43% were so qualified." Psychologists interested in mental retardation have tended to move "away from the public institutions and clinics, and toward private and municipal services. In 1952, 18% of the psychology membership of the AAMD was engaged in some form and level of full administrative activity. By 1962 it had increased to 21%. During the past decade the memberships in the AAMD psychology division has more than doubled. Yet, in 1952, 21% of all AAMD members were listed as psychologists, whereas by 1962 only 13% were so listed." A table summarizing psychological services to mental retardation in 1952 and 1962 is presented. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Statement on mental illness and mental retardation.

The statement made on behalf of the American Psychological Association is in support of Senate Bills 755 and 756 developed by Congress in response to President Kennedy's message on mental illness and mental retardation. "The psychologist is vitually concerned with the problems of mental disorders and of mental retardation. He is especially interested in research, and in the provision of services to people through the organized agencies of society, such as the public schools, community mental health centers, hospitals, institutions for the retarded, and rehabilitation agencies of many kinds." (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Assessing mental retardation in death penalty cases: Critical issues for psychology and psychological practice.

In 2002, the United States Supreme Court decided the Atkins case, which held that mentally retarded defendants could not be executed. The opinion gave no guidance on the definition of mental retardation, preferring to leave to individual states the task of determining not only the definition of mental retardation but also the assessment procedures to be used in making the diagnosis. This lack of guidance has resulted in many issues, including varying definitions of what constitutes mental retardation across states, use of different assessment procedures to make the determination that a person has mental retardation, and numerous psychometric concerns regarding the provision of psychological assessment services to the courts in capital cases that involve a defendant who may have mental retardation. This article examines these latter issues in detail from both psychological and legal perspectives and makes recommendations for practicing psychologists. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Review of Psychosocial and Educational Aspects and Problems of Mental Retardation.

Reviews the book, Psychosocial and Educational Aspects and Problems of Mental Retardation by Robert M. Allen & Arnold D. Cortazzo (1970). This little 123 page book was written for 'pre-professional' workers in special education, broadly defined, and including parents of the retarded. It offers handy condensations of current conventional wisdom about MR and under such headings as Definition, Concepts Classification and Evaluation. Final chapters talk about special education, vocational training and counselling. The style is somewhat informal but with enough hard facts to stimulate the reader to go on to a standard multidiscipline text. It should be most usefully prescribed for inservice preparation of technical aides and where a qualified teacher is available to flesh out the generalizations and demonstrate the techniques all too briefly mentioned. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

A social marketing approach to challenging stigma.

Providing psychological support to people with mental illness continues to be hampered by negative stigma. This article presents tools that help psychologists form partnerships with consumers to address the deleterious practice implications of stigma. This article describes a 3-stage persuasive method for attitude change regarding people with mental illness, developed and piloted in 2 antistigma social marketing campaigns by Idaho State University's Institute of Rural Health and the state of Idaho. The approach incorporates (a) methods to empower people with mental illness through a unique interactive process, (b) campaign design and distribution, and (c) methodology for evaluating effectiveness in the context of stigma. The model was applied to 2 Idaho projects, a multifaceted antistigma campaign pertaining to adult and child consumers and another regarding people of all ages with all disabilities, including mental illness. Participating in social marketing campaign development and evaluation provides new options for psychologists' practice. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Awards for Distinguished Professional Contributions 1986: Edward Zigler.

Edward Zigler, one of the 1986 recipients of the Distinguished Professional Contributions Award, is recognized for his contributions to psychological theory. In "the field of mental retardation, Dr. Zigler has made contributions that have essentially redefined and re-created the area. In his work with the economically disadvantaged, Dr. Zigler has changed the focus of early intervention efforts from the merely cognitive and academic to those that embrace the whole child, family and community at large. In the field of psychopathology, Dr. Zigler has revealed the depression interwoven with paranoid schizophrenia and has rewritten psychological texts to expand and enrich them with a heuristic focus on development. Dr. Zigler's work in juvenile delinquency dispelled many of the commonly held myths regarding intergenerational transmission of child abuse within the family. His work with the disadvantaged in many areas carries a high level of insight and creativity. His advocacy efforts for the disadvantaged have promoted the social usefulness of psychology, have shaped his career, and have influenced national social policy regarding the disadvantaged. Brilliant theoretician, polished public advocate; in Edward Zigler we have an ideal model of the responsible social scientist." (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The National Service Corps.

"On November 14, 1962, President Kennedy announced the appointment of a cabinet-level committee… to assess the feasibility of a national service corps." The corps would "recruit youth and older adults whose main function would be personal service to people. Among human needs described are problems of mental health and mental retardation, educational and vocational training deficiencies, inadequate social skills for urban living, delinqency, and communicable disease… . The American Psychological Association has been involved from the start and the Executive Officer serves as a member of a continuing Advisory Council on Mental Health and Mental Retardation." (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

On "Psychology and mental retardation" position statement.

Comments on a statement that appeared in the March 1970 American Psychologist article entitled "Psychology and Mental Retardation" (Anonymous; see record 1970-15620-001). Part of the present commentary reads as follows: "I am not in agreement with the statement that educational psychological personnel are likely to provide the "most productive approaches" in dealing with the problems of mental retardation. This position simply places educational psychology in the same untenable bind that other disciplines, including medicine, psychiatry, education, and sociology, have achieved in the past when they claimed exclusive domain to serving the mentally retarded. Educational psychology should be devoting its efforts to working together with other disciplines rather than to making exaggerated claims of its superiority." (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Dysmentia.

Comments on the calling of certain types of retardation dysmentia. The author states that emotional deprivation in early childhood is a well known cause of simulated retardation. At the present time the idea of functional retardation (as shown by psychological testing) with better or normal inherent capacities is expressed by such terms as "pseudoretardation," "apparent feeblemindedness," or "mental deficiency," or other similar combinations. The author suggests that these cases be called dysmentia to indicate disturbance in mental functioning as it applies to the intellectual spheres, and which may be temporary. This would give a more hopeful attitude towards such patients and ipso facto call for further follow-up and/or testing. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Reply to Callaghan: Stages of Change and Termination From Psychotherapy.

Replies to the comments by Russell C. Callaghan (see record 2005-07703-011) on the original article written by M. Brogan, J. O. Prochaska, and J. Prochaska (1999; see record 1999-11589-001). The present author replies to each of Callagan's concerns: that Figure 1 misrepresented the findings of the analyses related to the three-group discriminant function analysis (DFA); that some of the variables in the two-group DFA run contrary to predictions of the transtheoretical model (TTM) and to some of the results in the three-group DFA; that the ratio between the sample size (N) and number of predictors (p) in the DFA was insufficient because it did not meet the N/p rule of 20 to 1; and that the study lacked cross-validation. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Situations associated with admission to an acute care inpatient psychiatric unit.

This study examined whether stressful events occurred during the week preceding admission to an inpatient psychiatric unit in a sample of 97 adults with serious mental illness. The study also examined whether patients who had been readmitted within 30 days reported different stressful events than patients who had lived in the community for at least 6 months prior to admission. A structured interview was developed to obtain information about depressive and psychotic symptoms, stressful events, substance use, and aggressive and disruptive behaviors. Suicide risk was the most common reason for hospitalization (65%). Between 25% and 38% of patients reported interpersonal problems with family members or people outside their family, and about 50% reported financial problems immediately before hospitalization. Comparison of patients who had been readmitted within 30 days with patients who had been living in the community for at least 6 months since their last hospitalization found few differences between these groups. Results indicate that most patients were admitted to an inpatient psychiatric unit because of suicide risk, and interpersonal events seemed to precipitate hospital admission for these patients. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Unwanted Pregnancies: Reply.

Responds to the comment by John J. Sigal (see record 2004-14611-009) about the article by David, Dytrych, and Matejcek (see record 2003-03645-009) which showed the long-term negative psychological effects of unwantedness, up to 35 years after birth. The authors state that they were pleased to note Sigal's observation that the conclusions from their Prague study are consistent with findings reported by him and other colleagues on negative psychological effects of unwanted births. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Rigidity in the retarded: A further test of the Lewin-Kounin formulation.

Groups of younger and older familial retardates from 2 institutions and a group of normals were compared on 3 of Kounin's measures of rigidity. The general findings were inconsistent with the Lewin-Kounin rigidity formulation and the results reported by Kounin. The differences obtained between the groups investigated here are discussed in terms of a number of cognitive and motivational factors which have been advanced to explain differences in performance between normals and retardates of the same MA. (30 ref.) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Methodological issues in interviewing and using self-report questionnaires with people with mental retardation.

In this article the authors review methodological issues that arise when interviews and self-report questionnaires are used with people with mental retardation and offer suggestions for overcoming some of the difficulties described. Examples are drawn from studies that use qualitative methodology, quantitative studies assessing different question types, and studies reporting on the development of instruments measuring psychiatric symptoms, self-concept, and quality of life. Specific problems that arise with respect to item content (e.g., quantitative judgments, generalizations), question phrasing (e.g., modifiers), response format (e.g., acquiescence, multiple-choice questions), and psychometric properties (factor structure and validity) are discussed. It is argued that because many self-report questionnaires include questions that have been found to be problematic in this population, more attention needs to be paid to establishing the validity of such measures and to clearly defining the population for which the instrument is designed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)