α－钛／低碳钢爆炸复合界面结合层内的绝热剪切现象

本文利用光学显微镜和扫描电镜研究了α－钛／低碳钢爆炸复合界面结合层内α－钛侧产生的绝热剪切带（ＡＳＢ）的显微组织，表明ＡＳＢ内具有等轴晶组织特征，并且其内未发现微裂纹；显微硬度测量表明ＡＳＢ内的显微硬度比附近基体略高。并对ＡＳＢ这一现象从材料－力学－热学三方面进行了综合分析，认为，冲击载荷下绝热剪切是与速率相关的过程，应变率和应变都影响绝热剪切，材料本身的物理性能（定容比热Ｃ＿ｖ，密度ρ等），力学性能（如流变应力对应变率的敏感程度）和热性能（如热传导系数ｋ值）都影响ＡＳＢ的产生。     

钛合金动态塑性变形过程中绝热剪切带的形成机理

材料在应变速率高于102 s-1时的塑性变形被称为动态塑性变形.区别于准静态塑性变形,动态塑性变形涉及的复杂的高度局域化变形机制对材料的性能与寿命具有显著影响.绝热剪切带作为材料动态塑性变形过程中产生的特殊的变形结构,它对材料性能的影响引起了人们的高度关注.钛合金具有优良的力学性能,被用作结构材料,广泛应用于诸多行业,由于应用面广,钛合金会经常面临动态载荷产生绝热剪切带而失效,从而缩短使用寿命.因此,研究钛合金中绝热剪切带的形成机制对延长钛合金的使用寿命,改善钛合金的力学性能具有重要意义.然而,由于动态塑性变形的瞬时性、内部应力的复杂性等,还原绝热剪切带的形成过程具有相当大的难度.同时,钛合金结构的复杂性、变形过程中相的不稳定性等因素均提高了观察其内部绝热剪切带的难度.通过大量的实验观察与模拟计算,目前较为普遍的观点为钛合金中绝热剪切带的形成机制为动态再结晶.而动态再结晶的过程目前有四种主流的观点,分别是传统动态再结晶、连续动态再结晶、孪生动态再结晶与相变诱发动态再结晶.针对不同的动态再结晶方式,研究者们建立了基本的变形模型与理论依据,并找到了一定的实验证据.本文通过总结近年来学者们对钛及钛合金动态塑性变形行为研究的典型成果,重点介绍了绝热剪切带的形貌与性能及其形成的不同机制.同时对钛合金中绝热剪切带的几种不同的形成机制及其研究中存在的问题进行了分析讨论,旨在为未来的研究探索提供有用的参考.     

激光立体成形TC4钛合金的力学特性与破坏机理

对激光立体成形TC4钛合金在较宽温度(173～1173K)和应变率(0.001～10~5s~(-1))范围内,分别进行压缩、拉伸和剪切试验。结果表明:该合金无明显的力学各向异性;静态和动态加载时均存在明显的拉伸-压缩力学不对称性;其强度低于锻造和挤压成形TC4钛合金。微观分析表明:动态压缩和剪切加载时该合金易出现绝热剪切变形,但试验温度的升高会抑制绝热剪切带的产生;静态拉伸时断口为含韧窝和准解理台阶的混合性形貌,而动态拉伸时则有韧窝而没有解理台阶。动态压缩断裂机理是剪切带内形成空位和裂纹,裂纹沿α/β界面扩展形成断面。     

动态载荷下7005铝合金力学行为及数值模拟

本工作研究了7005铝合金在应变速率为(1～5)×103s-1条件下的力学行为。结果表明,7005铝合金有明显的应变速率敏感性。利用最小二乘法求得了材料的Johnson-Cook本构参数;应用ABAQUS软件,研究了高应变速率下的帽型试样的绝热剪切变形历程。数值模拟得到的应力-应变曲线与实验结果吻合。温度场的计算为绝热剪切带内微观组织是否发生动态再结晶提供了依据,当应变速率为15 000 s-1时,在120～240μs内,相比初始温度,试样的平均温升达到405℃。通过对冲击后试样的微观组织观测发现,绝热剪切带中有大量的等轴晶,具有典型的再结晶组织特征。7005铝合金在高应变速率下的变形温升和动态再结晶软化行为,将为其在汽车碰撞构件中的应用提供指导作用。     

模锻变形速率对TC18钛合金锻件组织及力学性能影响研究

研究了TC18钛合金不同模锻变形速率条件对显微组织及力学性能的影响规律。结果表明:较低模锻变形速率促进TC18钛合金β晶粒的动态再结晶过程,形成具有破碎的晶界α相的网篮组织,该组织断口具有韧性断裂组织特征,具有优异的塑性和断裂韧性;在较高变形速率条件下仅发生动态回复过程,形成具有平直的晶界α相的网篮组织,该组织塑性和断裂韧性均较低,断口呈冰糖状解理断裂组织特征; TC18钛合金强度性能对变形速率不敏感。     

超声冲击对TC4钛合金组织和性能的影响

对TC4钛合金试样表面进行超声冲击强化处理。利用维氏显微硬度仪测量冲击后沿截面方向硬度分布,利用扫描电子显微镜观察经超声冲击后组织变化,利用X射线衍射仪测定冲击后表层晶粒尺寸和微观应变。试验结果表明,经超声冲击后,TC4钛合金的组织和力学性能发生了显著变化。随着冲击功率的增大．显微硬度显著提高,表层晶粒细化并产生一定数值的微观应变。     

TC4和DT4合金的绝热剪切行为

采用分离式Hopkinson压杆装置对TC4钛合金和DT4电磁纯铁的帽形试样进行动态冲击实验,以研究两种材料高应变率下的绝热剪切行为,并分析材料热物理性能和力学性能对其绝热剪切敏感性的影响。实验所得流变应力-时间的关系曲线以及微观的金相分析都表明:尽管两种材料都发生了绝热剪切失效,但是TC4材料中的绝热剪切过程比较短暂,在失稳后的几个微秒之内材料就丧失了承载能力,并且带旁基体无明显塑性流变;而DT4材料中绝热剪切带的形成和扩展过程却要经历约60μs的时间,而带旁边的基体材料沿剪切方向发生了明显的塑性流变。通过对比两种材料绝热剪切带的扩展能,揭示了材料的比热、热导率和动态强度等参数对绝热剪切过程的影响。     

AA7021铝合金热变形行为及微观组织演变机理的研究

采用Gleeble-3500热模拟试验机对AA7021铝合金在变形温度为350～490℃、应变速率为0. 01～10 s~(-1)的热变形条件下进行热压缩试验。建立基于应变的本构方程以及材料热变形特征的热加工图,并对热加工图中安全区和失稳区的显微组织进行分析。结果表明,在安全区有形变诱导析出;在变形失稳区内,当变形温度较低、应变速率较高时,由于应变热效应的作用,形成了绝热剪切带。另外,在应变速率大于1 s~(-1)的区域中发现导致铝合金热加工性能变差的原因有局部流变、大粒子破碎脱粘、微观裂纹等。在热变形过程中,随着温度的升高,铝合金的动态软化机制由动态回复转向动态再结晶。AA7021铝合金在中温、高温热压缩过程中共存着多种软化机制,但动态回复占主导地位。     

高温与高应变率对TC21钛合金动态压缩性能及其绝热剪切敏感性的影响

利用分离式霍普金森压杆技术,研究了高温及高应变率对网篮组织TC21钛合金动态压缩性能和绝热剪切敏感性的影响。结果表明:在相同温度(25～350℃)下,材料具有一定的应变率增强、增塑效应,但450℃表现出应变率软化现象;在相同应变率下,动态抗压强度随着环境温度升高而降低;当应变率为2 000 s~(-1)、3 000 s~(-1)时,试样均发生剪切失效,且随环境温度升高,试样的绝热剪切敏感性提高,剪切带宽度增加。     

一种新型近β型Ti-5.5Mo-6V-7Cr-4Al-2Sn-1Fe合金热变形行为

采用Gleeble-3800型热模拟试验机对一种新型近β型Ti-5.5Mo-6V-7Cr-4Al-2Sn-1Fe(质量分数/%)钛合金进行等温恒应变速率压缩实验。变形温度范围为:655~855℃,应变速率范围为:0.001~10s^-1 ,最大真应变为0.8。根据实验数据,建立了该合金的高温流变应力模型,计算出热变形激活能约为255kJ/mol,并绘制出热加工图。结合热加工图与材料的显微组织分析可知,在高应变速率(1~10s^-1 )条件下变形时,在热加工图上表现为材料的功率耗散值(η)低,为失稳区域,易产生绝热剪切带与局部塑性流动、开裂等现象。在应变速率小于0.01s^-1 和相变点( T β)温度以下(655~755℃)进行热变形时,组织变化主要以动态回复为主;在应变速率小于0.01s^-1 和 T β以上(755~855℃)进行热变形时,组织发生动态再结晶,且随着温度的升高,新产生的再结晶晶粒逐渐长大。在相变点附近(755~770℃),变形速率为0.001~0.003s^-1 区域内变形时,功率耗散值达到最大值,组织发生动态再结晶,该区域为合金热变形的“安全区”。     

Microstructure in adiabatic shear bands in a pearlitic ultrahigh carbon steel

Abstract

Adiabatic shear bands, obtained in compression deformation at a strain rate of 4000 s^?1, in a pearlitic 1·3%C steel, were investigated. Shear bands initiated at 55% compression deformation with the width of the band equal to 14 μm. Nano-indentor hardness of the shear band was 11·5 GPa in contrast to the initial matrix hardness of 3·5 GPa. The high strength of the shear band is attributed to its creation from two sequential events. First, large strain deformation, at a high strain rate, accompanied by adiabatic heating, led to phase transformation to austenite. Second, retransformation upon rapid cooling occurred by a divorced eutectoid transformation (DET). The result is a predicted microstructure consisting of nano size carbide particles within a matrix of fine ferrite grains. It is proposed that the DET occurs in iron–carbon steels during high rate deformation in ball milling, ball drop tests and in commercial wire drawing.     

工业纯钛TA2剪切带中微观组织的演变

剪切变形局域化是结构材料经受冲击时的一种重要失效机制,为研究密排六方晶体结构金属材料的绝热剪切带形成条件与扩展规律,采用HOPKINSON压杆装置对精加工后的工业纯钛帽形样品进行高速冲击,利用扫描电镜和高分辨透射电镜研究了剪切带形貌和剪切带微观组织的演化过程.结果表明,工业纯钛TA2经高速冲击后,在帽形样品的韧带部位形成了明显的剪切带,剪切带组织由细小的再结晶晶粒组成,剪切带内没有相变发生,剪切带内的动态再结晶过程通过渐进式亚晶位相差再结晶机制完成.     

Analysis of the Transformation-induced Plasticity Effect during the Dynamic Deformation of High-manganese Steel

The transformation-induced plasticity(TRIP) effect and resistance characteristics to adiabatic shear failure at high strain rates of high-manganese steel were investigated by using scanning electron microscopy and electron backscattering diffraction. Results showed that the high-manganese steel exhibited excellent strain hardening effect and resistance to adiabatic shear failure because of the TRIP effect. The TRIP effect occurred during dynamic deformation and showed two distinct stages,namely,the smooth TRIP process before the formation of adiabatic shear band(ASB) and the inhibited TRIP process during further deformation. In the first stage,the martensitic transformation showed slight orientation dependence and weak variant selection,which promoted the TRIP effect. In the second stage,reverse martensitic transformation occurred. Adiabatic shear bands(ASBs) developed typical shear microtextures {111}<110>. In microtextures,two groups of fine grains are in a twin relationship and uniform distribution,which restrained the formation of holes and cracks within the ASBs and enhanced damage resistance after ASB formation.     

正交切削高强度钢绝热剪切带组织和硬度研究

为了研究切削速度和工件硬度对高强度钢锯齿形切屑内绝热剪切带显微组织和硬度的影响,利用光学显微分析、SEM和TEM以及硬度测量等方法观察和测量了不同切削速度下正交切削两种回火硬度的30CrNi3MoV钢形成的锯齿形切屑中绝热剪切带的微观组织和显微硬度的变化过程.结果表明:低速下形成以组织剧烈拉长为特征的形变带,高速下形成以组织严重细化为特征的转变带;工件硬度的提高有利于形成转变带;增加切削速度和工件硬度对转变带硬度影响很小,但会显著提高形变带硬度.     

TC11钛合金中α'相和α'相的组织演变和显微硬度

研究了TC11钛合金中α"相和α'相的显微组织转变和显微硬度。金相显微组织观察和X射线衍射分析的结果表明： 随着固溶温度的提高α"相逐渐向α'相的晶体结构转变,α相、α"相和α'相的显微组织演变规律为：α+α",α+α"+α',α+α',α'。显微硬度测试的结果表明：在935~995℃固溶后显微硬度随着温度的提高先增大后减少,在985℃固溶后显微硬度达到峰值。综合分析显微组织影响合金显微硬度的机理：在935~985℃固溶后α'片层的厚度和间距变化的幅度小,β转变组织长大缓慢,在β转变组织中先后析出α"和α'相,随着固溶温度的提高α'片层的含量随之提高产生了相变强度效果,使其显微硬度提高;在985~995℃固溶后α'片层的厚度和间距明显增大,β转变组织变粗大,α"相消失,α'相的含量降低,相变强化的效果减弱,使β转变组织的显微硬度降低。     

Adiabatic Shear in annealed and shock-hardened iron and in quenched and tempered 4340 steel

Adiabatic shear localization is a catastrophic failure mechanism which can occur in ductile metals under high strain rate loading. This mechanism is driven by a thermal instability process in which rapid temperature rise due to plastic work couples with thermal softening to cause uniform deformation to collapse into narrow bands of intense shear within which material ductility is exhausted. Adiabatic shear localization is studied in three ferrous metals: annealed Armco and as-received Remco iron, both of which are high purity alpha iron; shock-hardened Remco iron; and 4340 steel quenched and tempered to a range of hardness levels. Using a compressive split-Hopkinson bar, punching-shear experiments were performed at room and elevated initial temperatures at shear strain rates of up to 45000 s^–1. Optical and scanning electron microscopy was performed on the deformed shear specimens to determine the extent of shear localization and mode of failure. Experimental evidence showed that the tempered 4340 steels were susceptible to localization through adiabatic shear banding; however, as-received and shock-hardened Remco iron and annealed Armco iron were not. Finite element simulations of the experiments were performed utilizing a user material subroutine developed as part of this research. This constitutive routine incorporates two adiabatic shear failure criteria, namely (i) maximum shear stress with a minimum critical shear strain rate and (ii) flow localization. These criteria proved to be capable of predicting the onset of an instability; however, the deformation which follows the instability was not predicted well.     

Experimental studies on the dynamic tensile behavior of Ti–6Al–2Sn–2Zr–3Mo–1Cr–2Nb–Si alloy with Widmanstatten microstructure at elevated temperatures

The tensile behavior of a newly developed Ti–6Al–2Sn–2Zr–3Mo–1Cr–2Nb–Si alloy, referred as TC21, is investigated at temperatures ranging from 298 to 1023 K and under constant strain rate loadings ranging from 0.001 to 1270 s⁻¹. The results show that temperature and strain rate have significant effects on the tensile behavior of the material. At low strain rates of 0.001 and 0.05 s⁻¹, a discontinuity is found in the yield stress–temperature curve. And the discontinuity temperature increases with increasing strain rate. The analysis of temperature and strain rate dependence of unstable strain indicates a high-velocity-ductility phenomenon at elevated temperatures. Scanning electron microscope (SEM) analysis shows that the material is broken in a mixture manner of ductile fracture and intergranular fracture under low strain rates at room temperature, while the fracture manner changes to totally ductile fracture under other testing conditions. The width and depth of ductile dimples increase with increasing temperature. No adiabatic shear band is found in the tensile deformation of the material.     

Adiabatic shear band in a Ti-3Al-5Mo-4.5V Titanium alloy

An investigation has been carried out on the adiabatic shear band (ASB) in a Ti-3Al-5Mo-4.5V (TC16) alloy deformed at high strain rate by a split Hopkinson pressure bar (SHPB). ASB in TC16 alloy is a “white” band with a width of about 13 μm. Microhardness of the ASB is larger than that of the matrix. The elongated cell structures of width about 0.2–0.5 μm with thick dislocation exist in the boundary of the shear band. Results suggest that the fine equiaxed grains with α-phase and α″-phase coexist in the shear band. The “white” band is a transformation band. Calculation of the adiabatic temperature rise indicates that the maximum temperature within ASB is about 1,069 K that is above the phase transformation temperature. Finally, formation of an ASB in the TC16 alloy and its microstructure evolution are described.     

Relationship between microstructure and deformation behaviour during dynamic compression in Ti–3Al–5Mo–5V alloy

Abstract

The relationship between microstructure and deformation and damage behaviour during dynamic compression in Ti–3Al–5Mo–5V alloy has been studied using several experimental techniques, including optical microscopy, scanning electron microscopy and microhardness measurements. It was found that the deformation behaviour during dynamic compression was closely related to deformation parameters. After dynamic deformation, the deformation shear band that formed in the titanium alloy had microhardness similar to that of the matrix. However, the microhardness of the white shear band was much higher than the matrix microhardness. The effects of deformation parameters, including deformation rate and deformation degree, on deformation localisation were investigated. Based on the results from the present work, the microstructure and deformation processing parameters can be optimised. In addition, treatment methods after dynamic compression were explored to restore alloy properties. Using post-deformation heat treatment, the microstructure and property inhomogeneity caused by shear bands could be largely removed.