A review of sociotechnical systems theory: a classic concept for new command and control paradigms

Command and control is the management infrastructure for any large, complex, dynamic resource system (Harris, C.J. and White, I., 1987. Advances in command, control and communication systems. London: Peregrinus). Traditional military command and control is increasingly challenged by a host of modern problems, namely, environmental complexity, dynamism, new technology and competition that is able to exploit the weaknesses of an organisational paradigm that has been dominant since the industrial revolution. The conceptual response to these challenges is a new type of command and control organisation called Network Enabled Capability (NEC). Although developed independently, NEC exhibits a high degree of overlap with concepts derived from sociotechnical systems theory, a fact that this paper aims to explore more fully. Uniquely, what sociotechnical theory brings to NEC research is a successful 50 year legacy in the application of open systems principles to commercial organisations. This track record is something that NEC research currently lacks. The paper reviews the twin concepts of NEC and sociotechnical systems theory, the underlying motivation behind the adoption of open systems thinking, a review of classic sociotechnical studies and the current state of the art. It is argued that ‘classic’ sociotechnical systems theory has much to offer ‘new’ command and control paradigms. The principles of sociotechnical systems theory align it exceptionally well with the challenges of modern organisational design. It is also reflective of a wider paradigm shift in ergonomics theory away from ‘industrial age’ modes of thought to systems-based ‘information age’ thinking.     

Of green monkeys and failed affordances: A case study of a mechanical engineering design course

This article reports on an ethnographic study of a mechanical engineering design class. The findings are based on participant observation of one student design team of three students as they designed, tested and built an engineered solution to a problem over a period of ten weeks. The paper describes the curricular efforts to provide social and material affordances both for learning and doing design, and the failure of students on the observed team to take up those affordances. It offers explanations for failure within a framework of conflicting classroom views and pedagogic issues. It discusses the implications of the observed student behavior for design education in general, and mechanical engineering design, in particular.     

基于联系数学的包装装潢设计方案综合评价模型及应用

包装装潢设计方案的评价一般采用定性与定量相结合的方法,在介绍联系数学的基础上,建立了一种基于联系数学的包装装潢设计方案综合评价模型,实例应用表明该模型客观合理,结论正确,应用方便.     

On the performance and strategy of innovation systems: A multicriteria group decision analysis approach

Mainstream approaches to analyzing innovation systems are based on statistical methods, use standard sets of indicators, and are typically deployed to measure and classify innovation performance. As they are not based on decision-theoretic approaches that involve the multiple agents that are usually embedded in innovation systems, conventional approaches are rather inadequate to generate the strategy and describe the dynamics of innovation systems. Taking a rather different approach that has been motivated by the need to generate the strategy of innovation systems, we set out a methodology that lies at the intersection of strategy, innovation and decision theory. The methodology construes the strategy of an innovation system as a process that emerges from the evaluations of agents and the aggregation logics used to arrive at a group decision. The methodology draws upon the TOPSIS multicriteria decision analysis method, uses the Mahalanobis metric of distance and applies the Borda count to aggregate the preferences of multiple agents who participate as strategists in the process of allocating resources based on a set of agreed-upon indicators. The resulting methodology can be used in concert with different innovation frameworks using sets of indicators that may show varying degrees of correlation in order to drive the strategy of innovation systems as a dynamic group decision-theoretic process.     

Teaching design evaluation,with results from case studies of playgrounds,schools, and housing for the elderly

This paper examines the value of teaching POEs (post-occupancy evaluations) in the context of general design education. Using the model of the role of POEs in the design/build cycle, it outlines the major steps in teaching design students how to conduct professional post-occupancy/design evaluations. These steps are illustrated with illustrations of different research instruments, data analysis techniques, and design modifications. Three case studies are highlighted—the evaluation of playgrounds in Sydney, Australia, schools in Glendale, WI, USA and housing complexes for the elderly in Milwaukee, WI, USA.     

Reviewing the intellectual structure and evolution of the innovation systems approach: A social network analysis

The increased attention of policymakers and researchers to the concept of innovation systems in recent decades has led to an increase in studies in this field and, consequently, its dynamics. This increase in the number of studies indicates the necessity of conducting studies to delineate the intellectual structure and process of development and evolution of this field. The present study aims to present a picture of the structure, evolution, and dynamics of innovation systems through the analysis of academic social networks based on bibliometric criteria and identify emerging issues for research. Accordingly, using citation, word co-occurrence, co-citation, and bibliographic coupling analyses, we analyzed 3250 documents which had been published between 1988 and 2018 and extracted from the Web of Science database. Through a systematic review, theoretical roots and frameworks affecting this field were identified and the existing research streams were introduced. According to the analyses, historical and contemporary views were categorized into four clusters. In addition, the most important and emerging issues in this field were identified and the most influential documents, journals, and authors were introduced.     

An alliance of humans and machines for machine learning: Hybrid intelligent systems and their design principles

With the growing number of applications of artificial intelligence such as autonomous cars or smart industrial equipment, the inaccuracy of utilized machine learning algorithms could lead to catastrophic outcomes. Human-in-the-loop computing combines human and machine intelligence resulting in a hybrid intelligence of complementary strengths. Whereas machines are unbeatable in logic and computation speed, humans are contributing with their creative and dynamic minds. Hybrid intelligent systems are necessary to achieve high accuracy and reliability of machine learning algorithms. In a design science research project with a Swedish manufacturing company, this paper presents an application of human-in-the-loop computing to make operational processes more efficient. While conceptualizing a Smart Power Distribution for electric industrial equipment, this research presents a set of principles to design machine-learning algorithms for hybrid intelligence. From being AI-ready as an organization to clearly focusing on the customer benefits of a hybrid intelligent system, designers need to build and strengthen the trust in the human-AI relationship to make future applications successful and reliable. With the growing trends of technological advancements and incorporation of artificial intelligence in more and more applications, the alliance of humans and machines have become even more crucial.     

Use of the manufacturing system design decomposition for comparative analysis and effective design of production systems

The focus of this paper is on the use of the Manufacturing System Design Decomposition (MSDD) to make effective cost and production system design decisions. A comparative study is conducted to illustrate how and why the total cost is reduced when the functional requirements defined by the MSDD are achieved. The ultimate goal of this research was to advance manufacturing and production system development to being guided by engineering science and design rather than the common practice of duplicating another person’s or entity’s notion of the best physical implementation.     

Development of a framework for the design of autonomous vehicle storage and retrieval systems

In today’s competitive environment with increasingly faster deliveries and smaller order sizes, material handling providers are progressively developing new solutions. A more recent development in automated material-handling technology for unit load storage and retrieval is the autonomous vehicle storage and retrieval system (AVS/RS). The paper investigates the main design trade-offs for this new solution using simulation, and proposes a comprehensive design framework. Using data from a recently implemented AVS/RS, the application of the proposed framework is presented and the key design differences between the two types of AVS/RS configuration (i.e. tier-captive versus tier-to-tier) are identified.     

The elementary flux modes of a manufacturing system: a novel approach to explore the relationship of network structure and function

Elementary flux modes (EFMs) are a concept from Systems Biology, where they serve as an indicator of component relevance in metabolic networks. An elementary flux mode is a functionally relevant, non-decomposable path through a given network. In this paper, we apply elementary flux mode analysis to manufacturing systems, with the aim of using the number of EFMs as a predictor for resource significance in the manufacturing system. For this, we formulate a network representation of a manufacturing process, which allows us to define the manufacturing equivalent of a stoichiometric matrix to draw an analogy between metabolic and manufacturing systems. This, in turn, allows the computation of EFMs, which we conduct in a case-study for a real manufacturing system. We further show that the change of EFMs under resource breakdown is a good indicator of the average order lateness in the manufacturing system. In this way, EFMs provide insight into the relationship of network structure and function in manufacturing.     

A cost-benefit analysis for the design and implementation of reverse logistics systems: case studies approach

Reverse logistics (RL) has created new and innovative opportunities for academic researchers and business communities to explore the strategic, economic, environmental, and regulatory implications of recycled, remanufactured, and disposed products. This paper considered and analysed the relevant literature in RL and identified the present state of theory in RL regarding cost-benefit. The research methodology used is exploratory case study approach. The cost-benefit is analysed and evaluated in terms of specific sub-factors associated with it by use of two in-depth case studies. Two companies from different industries engaged in RL operations are considered. The analysis of these case studies resulted in propositions and insights regarding RL operations. Based on these insights, the cost-benefit sub-factors, propositions, and a framework for effective design and implementation of RL operations are provided. This framework determines the appropriate sub-factors and how the return process of products/parts with respect to cost-benefit works. In conclusion, the managerial implications and future research directions were provided.     

Safe places for pedestrians: Using cognitive work analysis to consider the relationships between the engineering and urban design of footpaths

Footpaths provide an integral component of our urban environments and have the potential to act as safe places for people and the focus for community life. Despite this, the approach to designing footpaths that are safe while providing this sense of place often occurs in silos. There is often very little consideration given to how designing for sense of place impacts safety and vice versa. The aim of this study was to use a systems analysis and design framework to develop a design template for an ‘ideal’ footpath system that embodies both safety and sense of place. This was achieved through using the first phase of the Cognitive Work Analysis framework, Work Domain Analysis, to specify a model of footpaths as safe places for pedestrians. This model was subsequently used to assess two existing footpath environments to determine the extent to which they meet the design requirements specified. The findings show instances where the existing footpaths both meet and fail to meet the design requirements specified. Through utilising a systems approach for footpaths, this paper has provided a novel design template that can inform new footpath design efforts or be used to evaluate the extent to which existing footpaths achieve their safety and sense of place requirements.     

Microemulsion loaded hydrogel as a promising vehicle for dermal delivery of the antifungal sertaconazole: design,optimization and ex vivo evaluation

The purpose of the present study was to develop and optimize sertaconazole microemulsion-loaded hydrogel (STZ ME G) to enhance the dermal delivery and skin retention of the drug. Following screening of various oils for maximum drug solubility, 12 pseudoternary phase diagrams were constructed using oils (Peceol^®, Capryol^® 90), surfactants (Tween^® 80, Cremophor^® EL), a cosurfactant (Transcutol^® P) and water. A 2¹ × 3¹ × 2¹ × 3¹ full factorial design was employed to optimize a ME of desirable characteristics. The MEs were formulated by varying the oil type, oil concentration, surfactant type and surfactant: cosurfactant ratio. Optimized ME formulae F22 [5% Peceol^®, 55% Tween^® 80: Transcutol^® (1:2), 40% water] and F31 [5% Peceol^®, 55% Cremophor^® EL: Transcutol^® (1:2), 40% water] acquired mean droplet size of 75.21 and 8.68?nm, and zeta potential of 34.65 and 24.05?mV, respectively. Since F22 showed higher STZ skin retention during ex vivo studies (686.47?μg/cm²) than F31 (338.11?μg/cm²); hence it was incorporated in 0.5% Carbopol 934 gel to augment STZ skin retention capability. STZ ME G exhibited higher STZ skin retention (1086.1?μg/cm²) than the marketed product “Dermofix^® cream” (270.3?μg/cm²). The antimycotic activity against C.albicans revealed increased zones of inhibition for F22 and STZ ME G (35.75 and 30.5?mm, respectively) compared to Dermofix^® cream (26?mm). No histopathological changes were observed following topical application of STZ ME G on rats’ skin (n?=?9). Overall, the obtained results confirmed that the fabricated formulation could be a promising vehicle for the dermal delivery of STZ.     

A distinct decision model for the evaluation and selection of a supplier for a chemical processing industry

The supplier selection process has gained importance recently due to the considerable amount of revenue spent on purchasing. The intention of this work is to develop an appropriate hybrid model by integrating the analytical hierarchy process (AHP) and grey relational analysis (GRA) for supplier evaluation and selection, which comprises three stages. In Stage I, the most influential criteria are selected by mutual-information-based feature selection. Stage II focuses on the determination of the weights of the attributes using AHP, while Stage III is used for the determination of the best supplier using GRA. The proposed model is illustrated using the case study of an electroplating industry to highlight the effectiveness and flexibility of the model. The model effectively combines specialised knowledge, experience and quantitative data to select the best suppliers. This paper presents the model development, solution and application processes of the proposed hybrid model for supplier selection. The decision support software was implemented in Excel to automate supplier selection. The proposed hybrid model is applied to enhance the decision-making process in supplier selection and also helps decision makers to effectively select suppliers.     

A mathematical model and a heuristic approach for design of the hybrid manufacturing systems to facilitate one-piece flow

One-piece flow is a design rule that entails production in manufacturing cells on a ‘make one, check one, and move-on one’ basis (Black, J.T., 2007. Design rules for implementing Toyota Production System. International Journal of Production Research, 45 (16), 3639–3664), which reduces manufacturing lead time significantly. This paper proposes a sequential methodology comprised of a mathematical model and a heuristic approach (HA) for the design of a hybrid cellular manufacturing system (HMS), to facilitate one-piece flow practice. The mathematical model is employed in the cases of small- and medium-sized problems, and it attempts to minimise the total number of exceptional operations, while considering machine capacities and alternative machines. The machine-part matrix achieved by the mathematical model is input into the flow line design stage of the HA, where backflow within the cells is eliminated. However, for industrial problems, the proposed HA is utilised. After the formation of the cells by clustering, the HA attempts to eliminate exceptional operations of a given cellular configuration together with a functional structure by employing alternative machines, based on the decision rules developed. Later, unidirectional flow within the cells is achieved and the capacity and budget constraints are satisfied. A medium-sized problem is solved by using both of the approaches, namely, the model integrated with the flow-line design stage of the HA and the complete HA. The results are discussed and the limitations are explained.     

Reprint of “Safe places for pedestrians: Using cognitive work analysis to consider the relationships between the engineering and urban design of footpaths”

Footpaths provide an integral component of our urban environments and have the potential to act as safe places for people and the focus for community life. Despite this, the approach to designing footpaths that are safe while providing this sense of place often occurs in silos. There is often very little consideration given to how designing for sense of place impacts safety and vice versa. The aim of this study was to use a systems analysis and design framework to develop a design template for an ‘ideal’ footpath system that embodies both safety and sense of place. This was achieved through using the first phase of the Cognitive Work Analysis framework, Work Domain Analysis, to specify a model of footpaths as safe places for pedestrians. This model was subsequently used to assess two existing footpath environments to determine the extent to which they meet the design requirements specified. The findings show instances where the existing footpaths both meet and fail to meet the design requirements specified. Through utilising a systems approach for footpaths, this paper has provided a novel design template that can inform new footpath design efforts or be used to evaluate the extent to which existing footpaths achieve their safety and sense of place requirements.     

Evaluation of the methylene blue addition in binary polymeric systems composed by poloxamer 407 and Carbopol 934P using quality by design: rheological,textural, and mucoadhesive analysis

This study describes the investigation about the physicochemical behavior of methylene blue (Mb) addition to systems containing poloxamer 407 (Polox), Carbopol 934P (Carb), intended to be locally used by photodynamic therapy. A factorial design 2³ (plus center point) was used to analyze the rheological, mucoadhesive and textural properties of the preparations. Systems containing the lower concentrations of Polox (15 and 17.5%, w/w) exhibited pseudoplastic flow and low degrees of rheopexy. On the other hand, at higher Polox concentration (20%, w/w) the systems display plastic flow and thixotropy. Carb and Mb exhibited a negative influence for the consistency and flow behavior index, due to the interaction between them. For most of the formulations, the increase of Polox and Mb content significantly increased storage modulus, loss modulus and dynamic viscosity. The systems display a sol–gel transition temperature, existing as a liquid at room temperature and gel at 29–37?°C. Increasing the temperature and the polymer concentration, the compressional properties of systems significantly increased. The mucoadhesion was noted to all formulations, except to systems composed by 15% (w/w) of Polox. The analyses enabled to understand and predict the performance of formulations and the polymer–Mb interactions, tailoring to the suit systems (Polox/Carb/Mb): 17.5/0.50/0.20 and 20/0.15/0.25.