Performance and surface alloying characteristics of Cu–Cr and Cu–Mo powder metal tool electrodes in electrical discharge machining

The main objective of this study is to investigate the effect of Cu–Cr and Cu–Mo powder metal (PM) tool electrodes on electrical discharge machining (EDM) performance outputs. The EDM performance measures used in the study are material removal rate (MRR), tool electrode wear rate (EWR), average workpiece surface roughness (R_a), machined workpiece surface hardness, abrasive wear resistance, corrosion resistance, and workpiece alloyed layer depth and composition. The EDM performance of Cu–Cr and Cu–Mo PM electrodes produced at three different mixing ratios (15, 25, and 35 wt% Cr or Mo), compacting pressures (P_c = 600, 700, and 800 MPa), and sintering temperatures (T_s = 800, 850, and 900 °C) are compared with those machined with electrolytic Cu and Cu PM electrodes when machining SAE 1040 steel workpiece. Analyses revealed that tool materials were deposited as a layer over the work surface yielding high surface hardness, strong abrasion, and corrosion resistance. Moreover, the mixing ratio, P_c, and T_s affect the MRR, EWR, and R_a values.     

Study on the nano-powder-mixed sinking and milling micro-EDM of WC-Co

Present study investigates the feasibility of improving surface characteristics in the micro-electric discharge machining (EDM) of cemented tungsten carbide (WC?CCo), a widely used die and mould material, using graphite nano-powder-mixed dielectric. In this context, a comparative analysis has been carried out on the performance of powder-mixed sinking and milling micro-EDM with view of obtaining smooth and defect-free surfaces. The surface characteristics of the machined carbide were studied in terms of surface topography, crater characteristics, average surface roughness (R _a) and peak-to-valley roughness (R _max). The effect of graphite powder concentration on the spark gap, material removal rate (MRR) and electrode wear ratio (EWR) were also discussed for both die-sinking and milling micro-EDM of WC?CCo. It has been observed that the presence of semi-conductive graphite nano-powders in the dielectric can significantly improve the surface finish, enhance the MRR and reduce the EWR. Both the surface topography and crater distribution were improved due to the increased spark gap and uniform discharging in powder-mixed micro-EDM. The added nano-powder can lower the breakdown strength and facilitate the ignition process thus improving the MRR. However, for a fixed powder material and particle size, all the performance parameters were found to vary significantly with powder concentration. Among the two processes, powder-mixed milling micro-EDM was found to provide smoother and defect-free surface compared to sinking micro-EDM. The lowest value of R _a (38?nm) and R _max (0.17???m) was achieved in powder-mixed milling micro-EDM at optimum concentration of 0.2?g/L and electrical setting of 60?V and stray capacitance.     

Effects of Powder Characteristics on Electrodischarge Machining Efficiency

This paper presents the effects of various powder characteristics on the efficiency of electrodischarge machining (EDM) SKD-11. The additives examined include aluminium (Al), chromium (Cr), copper (Cu), and silicon carbide (SiC) powders that have significant differences in their thermophysical properties. The machining mechanism with the addition of the foreign particles, the tool wear rate (TWR), and the material removal rate (MRR) have been investigated. It was found experimentally that the particle concentration, the particle size, the particle density, the electrical resistivity, and the thermal conductivity of powders were important characteristics that significantly affected the machining performance in the EDM process. Proper addition of powders to the dielectric fluid increased the MRR and, thus, decreased the TWR. Under the same particle concentration experiments, the smallest suspended particle size led to the greatest MRR and, thus, the lowest TWR. Of the additives investigated, chromium powder produced the greatest MRR and the lowest TWR, whereas the process without foreign particles has the converse effects. The addition of copper powder to the dielectric fluid was found to make almost no difference to the pure kerosene EDM system.     

Study of face milling of hardened AISI D3 steel with a special design of carbide tools

This paper studies the impact of a special carbide tool design on the process viability of the face milling of hardened AISI D3 steel (with a hardness of 60 HRC), in terms of surface quality and tool life. Due to the advances in the manufacturing of PVD AlCrN tungsten carbide coated tools, it is possible to use them in the manufacturing of mould and die components. Experimental results show that surface roughness (R_a) values from 0.1 to 0.3 μm can be obtained in the workpiece with an acceptable level of tool life. These outcomes suggest that these tools are suitable for the finishing of hardened steel parts and can compete with other finishing processes. The tool performance is explained after a tool wear characterization, in which two wear zones were distinguished: the region along the cutting edge where the cutting angle (κ) is maximum (κ_max) for a given depth of cut, and the zone where the cutting angle is minimum (κ?=?0) that generates the desired surface. An additional machining test run was made to plot the topography of the surface and to measure dimensional variations. Finally, for the parameters optimal selection, frequency histograms of R_a distribution were obtained establishing the relationship between key milling process parameters (V_c and f_z), surface roughness and tool wear morphology.     

Development of an inversion model for establishing EDM input parameters to satisfy material removal rate, electrode wear ratio and surface roughness

Electro-discharge machining (EDM) has grown tremendously over the last few decades. Due to its extensive capabilities, this technique has been increasingly adapted to new industrial applications within the field of aerospace, medical, die and mould production, precision tooling, etc. The novelty of the research presented in this paper lies in solving an inversion model, based on the least squares theory, which involves establishing the values of the EDM input parameters (peak current level, pulse-on time and pulse-off time) to ensure the simultaneous fulfilment of material removal rate (MRR), electrode wear ratio (EWR) and surface roughness (SR). The inversion model was constructed from a set of experiments and the equations formulated in the forward model described in the first part of this paper. In the forward model, the well-known ANOVA and regression models were used to predict the EDM output performance characteristics, such as MRR, EWR and SR in the EDM process for AISI 1045 steel with respect to a set of EDM input parameters.     

A study of die helical thread cavity surface finish made by Cu-W electrodes with planetary EDM

An experimental research study intended for the application of a planetary electrical discharge machining (EDM) process with copper-tungsten (Cu-W) electrodes in the surface micro-finishing of die helical thread cavities made with AISI H13 tool steel full-hardened at 53 HRC is presented. To establish the EDM parameters’ effect on various surface finishing aspects and metallurgical transformations, three tool electrode Cu-W compositions are selected, and operating parameters such as the open-circuit voltage (U ₀), the discharge voltage (u _e), the peak discharge current (î _e), the pulse-on duration (t _i), the duty factor (τ) and the dielectric flushing pressure (p _in), are correlated. The researched machining characteristics are the material removal rate (MRR—V _w), the relative tool wear ratio (TWR—?), the workpiece surface roughness (SR—Ra), the average white layer thickness (WLT—e _wl) and the heat-affected zone (HAZ—Z _ha). An empirical relation between the surface roughness (SR—Ra) and the energy per discharge (W _e) has been determined. It is analysed that copper-tungsten electrodes with negative polarity are appropriate for planetary EDM die steel surface micro-finishing, allowing the attaining of good geometry accuracy and sharp details. For die steel precision EDM, the relative wear ratio optimum condition and minor surface roughness takes place at a gap voltage of 280 V, discharge current of 0.5–1.0 A, pulse-on duration of 0.8 μs, duty factor of 50%, dielectric flushing pressure of 40 kPa and copper tungsten (Cu20W80) as the tool electrode material with negative polarity. The copper-tungsten electrode’s low material removal rate and low tool-wear ratio allows the machining of EDM cavity surfaces with an accurate geometry and a “mirror-like” surface micro-finishing. A planetary EDM application to manufacture helical thread cavities in steel dies for polymer injection is presented. Conclusions are appointed for the planetary EDM of helical thread cavities with Cu-W electrodes validating the accomplishment as a novel technique for manufacturing processes.     

Feasibility study of micro-slit EDM machining using pure water

This study addresses micro-slit EDM machining feasibility using pure water as the dielectric fluid. Experimental results revealed that pure water could be used as a dielectric fluid and adopting negative polarity EDM machining could obtain high material removal rate (MRR), low electrode wear, small slit expansion, and little machined burr, compared to positive polarity machining. In comparing kerosene versus pure water, pure water was observed to cause low carbon adherence to the electrode surface. Also discharge energy does not decrease and the discharge processes are not interrupted. Therefore, MRR was higher, and related electrode wear ratio compared to kerosene use was lower. In a continual EDM with multi-slit machining, kerosene will cause carbon element adherence, creating an initially high MRR and electrode wear, with rapid decline. However, pure water will not cause carbon element adherence on the electrode surface, so MRR and electrode wear is always stable in this process.     

A NEW METHOD FOR MACHINING OF ELECTRICALLY NONCONDUCTIVE WORKPIECES USING ELECTRIC DISCHARGE MACHINING TECHNIQUE

In this study, a new method for machining of nonconductive ceramic workpieces in electric discharge machining (EDM) was developed. Machining surfaces of nonconductive workpieces were coated with a conductive layer (CL) and graphite powder was added to dielectric fluid for machining. Al₂O₃, ZrO₂, SiC, B₄C and glass workpiece samples were machined by using the method. Different machining conditions were tested for each sample and optimum machining parameters were determined. Effect of electrical conductivity, thermal conductivity and melting point of workpieces on material removal rate (MRR) was investigated. Optical microscope and SEM (Scanning Electron Microscope) surface photographs of workpieces taken after machining are presented and discussed.     

Multi-response optimization of machining process parameters for powder mixed electro-discharge machining of H-11 die steel using grey relational analysis and topsis

Electro-discharge machining (EDM) is an enormously used nonconventional process for removing material in die making, aerospace, and automobile industries. It consists of limitations like poor volumetric material removal rate (MRR) and reduced surface quality. Powder mixed EDM (PMEDM) is a new development in EDM to enhance its machining capabilities. The present work investigates the effect of powder concentration (C_p), peak current (I_p), pulse on time (T_on), duty cycle (DC) and gap voltage (V_g) on MRR, tool wear rate (TWR), electrode wear ratio (EWR), and surface roughness (SR) simultaneously for H-11 die steel using SiC powder. Taguchi's L₂₇ orthogonal array has been used to conduct the experiments. Multiobjective optimization using grey relational analysis (GRA) and technique for order of preference by similarity to ideal solution (TOPSIS) has been used to maximize the MRR and minimize the TWR, EWR, and SR and determine the optimal set of process parameters. Analysis of variance (ANOVA) has been performed to understand the significance of each process parameter. Results were verified by conducting confirmatory tests. GRA and TOPSIS exhibit an improvement of 0.1843 and 0.14308 in the preference values, respectively. Microstructure analysis has been done using scanning electron microscope (SEM) for the optimum set of parameters.     

Finishing performance of die-sinking EDM with ultrasonic vibration and powder addition through pulse train studies

Abstract

Die-sinking electrical discharge machining (EDM) is widely used in die and mold-making industry. Finish EDM conditions are often selected to produce good quality surfaces. Attempts to enhance the finishing capabilities using ultrasonic vibration and powder-added dielectric medium have been reported in the literature. However, the changes in the gap phenomena with ultrasonic assistance and powder addition have not been analyzed. In this article, finish EDM of hardened D3 steel has been carried out based on full factorial design of experiment with three levels of setting voltage, setting current and pulse on time. The performance of ultrasonic assisted and graphite powder-added EDM are evaluated by analyzing the voltage and current pulse trains in finishing operation for the first time. Based on two new parameters, namely energy expended over a second (E) and ratio of energy due to sparks in relation to total discharge energy (PF), the results are discussed and also compared with those obtained with conventional EDM for selected conditions. Even though E of 102.9 J (PF?=?0.862) with ultrasonic vibration is higher than E of 43.0 J (PF?=?1.0) with powder mix, the molten metal is removed effectively from the gap by ultrasonic vibration which results in a relatively better surface. The micrographs of cross-section and surface of the workpieces obtained using optical and scanning electron microscopes, respectively, also reveal their relative performance.     

Manufacture of stainless steel edge filters: an application of electrolytic photopolishing

Electrolytic photopolishing of AISI 304 stainless steel has been used, together with conventional photochemical machining techniques, to produce an edge filter with a surface texture value of 0.065 μm (R_a)     

An experimental investigation of cylindrical wire electrical discharge turning process

The cylindrical wire electrical discharge turning (CWEDT) process was developed to generate precise cylindrical forms on hard, difficult to machine materials. A precise, flexible, and corrosion-resistant submerged rotary spindle was designed and added to a conventional five-axis CNC wire electrical discharge machine (EDM) to enable the generation of free-form cylindrical geometries. The hardness and strength of the work material are no longer the dominating factors that affect the tool wear and hinder the machining process. In this study, the effect of machining parameters on surface roughness (R _a) and roundness in cylindrical CWEDT of a AISI D3 tool steel is investigated. The selection of this material was made taking into account its wide range of applications in tools, dies, and molds and in industries such as punching, tapping, reaming, and so on in cylindrical forms. Surface roughness and roundness are chosen as two of the machining performances to verify the process. In addition, power, pulse off-time, voltage, and spindle rotational speed are adopted for evaluation by full factorial design of experiments. In this case, a 2²?×?3² mixed full factorial design has been selected considering the number of factors used in the present study. The main effects of factors and interactions were considered in this paper, and regression equations were derived using response surface methodology. Finally, the surfaces of the CWEDT parts were examined using scanning electron microscopy (SEM) to identify the macro-ridges and craters on the surface. Cross sections of the EDM parts were examined using the SEM and microhardness tests to quantify the sub-surface recast layers and heat-affected zones under specific process parameters.     

混粉电火花加工中极性效应的研究

为研究极性效应对混粉电火花加工的影响规律．采用钢对钢加工、铜对钢加工两种电极组合在添加硅粉的煤油工作液及普通煤油工作液中进行实验，并更换不同的极性，考察了两极材料的去除率和表面粗糙度，结果表明负极总能得到更高的材料去除率，而正极总能得到更低的表面粗糙度值。此现象可从两极表面能量密度差异的角度予以解释。     

Modeling and analysis of the effects of machining parameters on the performance characteristics in the EDM process of Al2O3+TiC mixed ceramic

Electric discharge machining (EDM) has achieved remarkable success in the manufacture of conductive ceramic materials for the modern metal industry. Mathematical models are proposed for the modeling and analysis of the effects of machining parameters on the performance characteristics in the EDM process of Al₂O₃+TiC mixed ceramic which are developed using the response surface methodology (RSM) to explain the influences of four machining parameters (the discharge current, pulse on time, duty factor and open discharge voltage) on the performance characteristics of the material removal rate (MRR), electrode wear ratio (EWR), and surface roughness (SR). The experiment plan adopts the centered central composite design (CCD). The separable influence of individual machining parameters and the interaction between these parameters are also investigated by using analysis of variance (ANOVA). This study highlights the development of mathematical models for investigating the influences of machining parameters on performance characteristics and the proposed mathematical models in this study have proven to fit and predict values of performance characteristics close to those readings recorded experimentally with a 95% confidence interval. Results show that the main two significant factors on the value of the material removal rate (MRR) are the discharge current and the duty factor. The discharge current and the pulse on time also have statistical significance on both the value of the electrode wear ratio (EWR) and the surface roughness (SR).     

Experimental modeling and multi-objective optimization of traveling wire electrochemical spark machining (TW-ECSM) process

The present paper attempts to focus an application of a hybrid methodology comprising of Taguchi methodology (TM) coupled with response surface methodology (RSM) for modeling and TM coupled with weighted principal component (WPC) methodology for multiobjective optimization of a self developed traveling wire electro-chemical spark machining (TW-ECSM) process. First optimum level of input parameters is found using TM which is used as the central values in RSM to develop the second-order response model. For multiobjective optimization two quality characteristics surface roughness (R_a) and material removal rate (MRR), which are of opposite nature (R_a is the lower-the-better type, while MRR is the higher-the-better type), have been selected. The WPC is employed for the calculation of weight corresponding to each quality characteristic. The results indicate that the hybrid approaches applied for modeling and optimization of the TW-ECSM process are reasonable.     

混粉准干式电火花加工试验研究

提出一种混粉准干式电火花加工技术,其加工介质是气液固三相流混合物。试验结果表明,材料去除率与表面粗糙度随脉冲宽度、峰值电流及分层厚度的增大而增大,脉冲间隙作用则相反,提高空气压力既有助于提高材料去除率又可降低表面粗糙度,电极损耗随脉冲宽度增大而减小,当脉冲宽度较大时电极损耗接近于零,随峰值电流增大而增加。由于液滴、粉末的介入,气体介质的绝缘强度降低,放电间隙会增加,有利于电蚀产物的排除,可减少短路、电弧放电的发生率,加工稳定性得到提高,从而材料去除率得到提高;由于粉末会产生放电分散效果,电蚀凹坑深度减小,工件表面粗糙度降低。     

EDM machinability and frictional behavior of ZrO2-WC composites

Zirconium dioxide (ZrO₂)-based composites with WC addition are demonstrated to be suitable for electrical discharge machining (EDM) in deionized water. ZrO₂-based composites with 40 vol. % WC, obtained from distinctive WC powder sources, were produced in order to derive correlations between material removal rate (MRR), surface finish, wire EDM parameters and material properties. Dry reciprocating sliding experiments on wire-electrical discharge machined ZrO₂-WC composite samples against WC-Co cemented carbide, performed using a pin-on-plate testing rig, revealed a significant influence of the microstructure of the secondary WC-phase on wire EDM behavior and frictional characteristics.     

Sinking EDM in water-in-oil emulsion

In this paper, a new type of sinking electric discharge machining (EDM) dielectric–water-in-oil (W/O) emulsion is proposed, and the machining characteristics of W/O emulsion are investigated by comparing with that of kerosene. In the experiments, machining parameters such as the dielectric type, peak current, and pulse duration are changed to explore their effects on machining performance, including the material removal rate (MRR), relative electrode wear rate (REWR), and surface roughness. Experimental results revealed that W/O emulsion could be used as the dielectric fluid of sinking EDM and adopting long pulse duration and large peak current could lead to obtaining higher MRR than kerosene. Compared with kerosene, W/O emulsion is observed to cause lower carbon adhered to the electrode surface. Therefore, its REWR is higher. Statistics of the discharge waveform show that more stable discharge processes can be obtained by using W/O emulsion compared with kerosene. Furthermore, W/O emulsion is more economical and more environmentally friendly than kerosene, and it could be an alternative to kerosene in sinking EDM application.     

Experimental and finite element analysis of EDM process and investigation of material removal rate by response surface methodology

In this study, thermal modeling and finite element simulation of electrical discharge machining (EDM) has been done, taking into account several important aspects such as temperature-dependent material properties, shape and size of the heated zone (Gaussian heat distribution), energy distribution factor, plasma flushing efficiency, and phase change to predict thermal behavior and material removal mechanism in EDM process. Temperature distribution on the cathode has been calculated using ANSYS finite element code, and the effect of EDM parameters on heat distribution along the radius and depth of the workpiece has been obtained. Temperature profiles have been used to calculate theoretical material removal rate (MRR) from the cathode. Theoretically calculated MRRs are compared with the experimental results, making it possible to precisely determine the portion of energy that enters the cathode for AISI H13 tool steel. Also in this paper, the effect of EDM parameters on MRR has been investigated by using the technique of design of experiments and response surface methodology. Finally, a quadratic polynomial regression model has been proposed for MRR, and the accuracy of this model has been checked by means of analysis of residuals.     

Sliding wear behaviour of ZrN and (Zr, 12 wt% Hf)N coatings

In the present study, the sliding wear resistances of ZrN and (Zr, 12 wt% Hf)N coatings deposited on a hardened AISI D2 tool steel by arc-physical vapor deposition (PVD) technique were examined by a ball-on-disc wear tester. Alloying of ZrN coating with 12 wt% Hf did not change the hardness significantly, but achieved an improvement on adhesion strength and dry sliding wear resistance against steel (AISI 52100-55HRC) and Al₂O₃ balls.