Measuring energy poverty in Greece

A comprehensive research in the field of energy poverty is undertaken in this paper, in an attempt to highlight the great vulnerability of Greek households on energy poverty, in the middle of a severe economic crisis. Till now, Greek energy policy has been considered insufficient to tackle energy poverty issues, as focusing mainly on short-term rather than permanent solutions. A primary survey has been conducted, recording objective data of energy expenses as well as subjective perceptions about housing conditions. The findings showed that, under the objective expenditure-based method, 58% of Greek households are energy poor. Among households under the poverty threshold, the energy poverty rate exceeds 90%. Existing and new subjective indicators shed light on other aspects of energy poverty, such as the level of thermal comfort at home, damp problems detected, restriction of other essential needs in order to manage energy payments, etc. Some interesting conclusions are also drawn by exploring the relationship between various indicators. It appears that households considered energy poor are not identical when examined by objective and subjective indicators. However, different indicators complement each other by capturing different aspects of the problem and provide a broader overview of the issue.     

Measuring fuel poverty in France: Which households are the most fuel vulnerable?

Fuel poverty is a growing concern in France. Following a hike in energy prices that started in 2004, the problem of energy affordability for low-income households entered the political debate with the “Grenelle de l'environnement” in 2007. According to the standard UK definition (more than 10% of income spent on domestic energy) 3.8 million households were subject to fuel poverty in France in 2006 however, this is according to one precise computation and other computations may offer differing conclusions. We question the way fuel poverty is currently measured and compare the impact of different existing measurement approaches on the extent and composition of fuel poverty in France. We then identify fuel vulnerable households as those households that are not ordinarily poor when considering income net of housing costs, but turn poor because of their domestic fuel expenses. A logit, a C log–log and a mixed effect logit model are used to analyse which factors influence the probability of being fuel vulnerable. Data analysis indicates that the proportion of fuel poor people and their characteristics differ significantly depending on the fuel poverty measure chosen. The econometric results show that the probability of being fuel vulnerable is higher for those who are retired, living alone, rent their home, use an individual boiler for heating, cook with butane or propane and have poor roof insulation.     

Fuel poverty, thermal comfort and occupancy: results of a national household-survey in Ireland

Fuel poverty is perhaps the strongest adverse social impact resulting from the inefficient consumption of energy in the domestic sector. Despite considerable research examining the plight of those affected, there has been very little empirical work examining the relationship between fuel poverty and thermal comfort and the extent of indoor cold strain resulting from inadequately heated housing. Furthermore, the effects of fuel poverty on household occupancy have not been addressed formerly. This paper employs a new national household survey of Ireland—a country with a level of fuel poverty similar to Britain—to examine these key issues. Both self-reported and objective measures of thermal comfort are utilised, and the study pays particular attention to the age profile of those affected by thermal discomfort. The results show, inter alia, that two-thirds of fuel-poor householders demonstrate cold strain, and over half of elderly households endure inadequate ambient household temperatures during winter.     

A multidimensional index to measure energy poverty: the Polish case

ABSTRACT

Energy poverty is generally caused by having a low income, facing high energy costs, and living in a home with low energy efficiency. Various indicators capture these facets, but there is no consensus which is the best one, or how to combine them. To this aim, we create a multidimensional index that accounts for five dimensions of energy deprivation: two objective indicators of “low income, high costs,” and “high actual cost,” as well as three subjective indicators of “not warm enough home,” “housing faults,” and “bills difficulties.” We define households as poor if at least two forms of deprivation are present. We apply our measure to Poland. In 2017, 10% of households in Poland suffered from multidimensional energy poverty. Households living in buildings built before 1946, households living in rural areas, and households that were dependent on retirement and disability pensions were at the highest risk of multidimensional energy poverty.     

Monitoring energy poverty in Northern Greece: the energy poverty phenomenon

The last two decades’ scientists have become increasingly interested in the aspects of energy poverty. In order to study the dynamics of energy poverty in Northern Greece a field study was carried out. The evidence presented is based on a comprehensive study of 350 questionnaires mainly for Western (47%) and Central Macedonia (45%), in Northern Greece. The questionnaire focused on the household’ and users’ characteristics, allowing for regional specific effects. Additionally, in an effort to study and quantify the relation between households’ net-income and the most common indicators of energy poverty a Chi-square test was estimated. At the same time six temperature and humidity loggers have been distributed to selected participants to record real-time data. Overall, the results of the survey unveiled that various characteristics of the domestic demand for heating are linked with the household’s net-income.     

Design of energy efficient and thermally comfortable air-conditioned university classrooms in the tropics

This study aims to design energy efficient and thermally comfortable air-conditioning system in university classrooms. The research has been conducted in two steps. The first step was a survey of students’ thermal comfort under air-conditioning classrooms, which collecting 175 questionnaires from 92 students. The second step was the calculation of cooling energy consumption using the EnergyPlus software. With the air temperature ranged from 23.0 to 27.0°C about 53% of respondents felt uncomfortable (cold or cool). The neutral temperature of students was found to be 27.0°C, which is higher than the classrooms’ temperature. The energy simulation results show that the most significant factors affecting energy use is the temperature setting. Therefore, there is a possibility to reduce the cooling energy while improving the thermal comfort of students. To this end, it is recommended to raise the air temperature setting from 25.0°C to a minimum of 26.0°C.     

Housing market capitalization of thermal integrity

The extent to which housing markets capitalize investments in energy efficiency is important to observe. The uncertainty now associated with this process can lead households to allocate resources inefficiently in the production of thermal comfort, by substituting more fuel inputs for less capital. From a policy perspective, the end result of this is the continued construction of units in the housing stock with sub-optimal levels of energy efficiency. This study is a cross-sectional analysis of houses constructed through the Energy Efficient Housing Demonstration Program of the Minnesota Housing Finance Agency. Values of investments in energy efficiency are derived from a hedonic regression which includes a vector of thermal integrity factors as an independent variable.     

The challenge to UK energy policy: An ageing population perspective on energy saving measures and consumption

With a focus on the residential sector, this paper explores the likelihood of the UK government meeting its energy targets. The paper contends that energy policy needs to take into account the interplay of four major factors: an ageing population of increasing diversity; a cultural inclination for older housing much of which is thermally inefficient; levels of fuel poverty; and the inexorable rise of consumer spending on leisure related services and goods. Decisions made by older households (both the poorer and the better off) may be critical to the success of energy policy. Among the better off the changing expectations of the baby boomers, with their predilection for consumption and travel, may have particular impact. The paper concludes that much of the reduction in carbon footprint made by older people’s choices in heating and insulation may be offset, not only by increasing domestic thermal comfort, but also potentially by increasing consumables in the home and other consumer lifestyle choices. What could be achieved at best, may be a shift in energy mix.     

Living in cold homes after heating improvements: Evidence from Warm-Front,England’s Home Energy Efficiency Scheme

ObjectiveTo investigate explanatory factors for persistent cold temperatures in homes which have received heating improvements.DesignAnalysis of data from a national survey of dwellings and households (in England occupied by low-income residents) that had received heating improvements or repairs under the Warm Front Scheme.MethodsOver the winters of 2001–02 and 2002–03, householders recorded living room and main bedroom temperatures in a diary. Entries were examined for 888 households, which had received high level heating interventions. Two hundred and twenty-two households were identified as occupying cold homes, with mean bedroom temperature below 16 °C or mean living room temperatures below 18 °C. Binary logistic regression was used to model dwelling and household features and then occupants’ behaviour and attitudes in the ‘cold homes’ sub-set compared with the remainder of the high intervention group. Seventy-nine supplementary, structured telephone interviews explored reasons given for lower temperatures. Using graphical and tabular methods, householders preferring cooler homes were distinguished from those who felt constrained in some way.ResultsCold homes predominate in pre-1930 properties where the householder remains dissatisfied with the heating system despite major improvements funded by Warm Front. Residents of cold homes are less likely to have long-standing illness or disability, but more likely to experience anxiety or depression. A small sample of telephone interviews reveals those preferring lower temperatures for health or other reasons, report less anxiety and depression than those with limited control over their home environment. Their ‘thermal resistance’ to higher temperatures challenges orthodox definitions of comfort and fuel poverty.     

Measuring energy poverty in Japan, 2004–2013

This paper first examines energy (or fuel) poverty in Japan from 2004 to 2013, especially around the time of the 2011 Great East Japan Earthquake (GEJE). To analyze the issue, the paper employs various poverty and vulnerability measures with the assistance of our unique dataset. The results indicate the aggravation of energy poverty among lower-income and vulnerable households during the past decade, resulting from both the escalation of energy prices and lowering of income. The analysis also employs a new decomposition technique and identifies the explanatory factors associated with the increase in energy poverty. These results suggest there were major changes in the forces driving the increase in energy poverty before and after the GEJE. After 2011, income alleviates energy poverty in Japan, with energy prices becoming the main driving factor.     

Comparative studies of the occupants’ behaviour in a university building during winter and summer time

The paper focuses on the assessment of indoor comfort and energy consumption of a university building in Cyprus, during winter and summer of 2012 and 2013. The aim was to make a comparative study of the occupants’ behaviour and its effects on the building's energy consumption, along with the indoor thermal and visual comfort between the two seasons. American Society of Heating, Refrigerating and Air conditioning Standards are used through a questionnaire campaign and the thermal comfort of occupants is analysed with the indicators of predicted mean vote and predicted percentage dissatisfied. The answers are analysed using SPSS software. The air temperature, the relative humidity and the lighting levels of the building are monitored using temperature, humidity and lux meter tools. The monthly energy consumption cost is also calculated. The results are analysed and comparative studies of the occupants’ behaviour conclude to various patterns of effects on the thermal and visual comfort of the building, as well as on its energy consumption.     

A comprehensive energy solution for households employing a micro combined cooling,heating and power generation system

In recent years, micro combined cooling, heating and power generation (mCCHP) systems have attracted much attention in the energy demand side sector. The input energy of a mCCHP system is natural gas, while the outputs include heating, cooling and electricity energy. The mCCHP system is deemed as a possible solution for households with multiple energy demands. Given this background, a mCCHP based comprehensive energy solution for households is proposed in this paper. First, the mathematical model of a home energy hub (HEH) is presented to describe the inputs, outputs, conversion and consumption process of multiple energies in households. Then, electrical loads and thermal demands are classified and modeled in detail, and the coordination and complementation between electricity and natural gas are studied. Afterwards, the concept of thermal comfort is introduced and a robust optimization model for HEH is developed considering electricity price uncertainties. Finally, a household using a mCCHP as the energy conversion device is studied. The simulation results show that the comprehensive energy solution proposed in this work can realize multiple kinds of energy supplies for households with the minimized total energy cost.     

Housing,energy cost,and the poor: Counteracting effects in Germany's housing allowance program

Adequate housing and affordable warmth are essential human needs, the lack of which may seriously harm people's health. Germany provides an allowance to low-income households, covering the housing as well as the space heating cost, to protect people from the consequences of poor housing conditions and fuel poverty. In order to limit public expenditures, payment recipients are required to choose low-cost dwellings, with the consequence that they probably occupy flats with a poor thermal performance. Recipients might therefore exhibit a lower per-square meter rent but in turn are likely to have a higher energy consumption and energy expenditures. Using a large data set of German households, this paper demonstrates that this financially counteracting effect is of negligible magnitude.     

Energy and the occupant’s thermal perception of low-income dwellings in hot-dry climate: Mexicali,México

The residential sector in Mexico requires around 25% of the national electric energy consumption. In hot-dry climate cities like Mexicali, the per capita consumption is 5924 MWh/year, 3.5 times more than the national average. The high temperatures during summer in the city generate conditions of thermal discomfort in dwellings. Therefore, the use of air conditioning equipment and non thermal adequate constructions promote high electrical consumptions. The objective of this study is to determine how electrical consumption in the low-income dwellings depends on the characteristics of design and construction or the occupant’s perception has of the conditions of thermal comfort. A field study was done, consisting on the application of surveys. Electrical energy consumption of low-income dwelling was obtained and related with the perception of thermal comfort. The results showed that in this kind of houses, the electricity energy consumption was higher than the average of Mexicali’s dwellings, due to the conditions of design and construction of the houses and particularly, by occupant’s behavior.     

Towards flexible energy demand – Preferences for dynamic contracts,services and emissions reductions

Households’ preferences for attributes of flexible energy demand are not well understood. This paper evaluates Finnish households’ acceptance of hypothetical contracts and services aimed at increasing demand side flexibility. We conduct a Choice Experiment to analyze households’ willingness to offer flexibility through timing their electricity usage and heating; their interest in dynamic pricing contracts such as real-time pricing, two-rate tariffs, or power-based tariffs; and how emissions reductions affect their choices. The results indicate that households’ sensitivity to restrictions in electricity usage is much stronger than their sensitivity to restrictions in heating. Households also require considerable compensation to choose real-time pricing over fixed fees. Furthermore, other value-creating elements besides monetary compensation could incentivize households to offer demand side flexibility because they value reductions in CO₂ emissions at the power system level.     

Energy demand for rural household heating to suitable levels in the Loess Hilly Region,Gansu Province,China

This study was conducted to analyze the status of energy use for heating in rural areas and the energy demands required by rural households to maintain temperatures suitable for the residents to live comfortably. In addition, suggestions to improve the thermal comfort of such families are put forward. In this study, we obtained data regarding temperature changes and energy consumption in two villages in the region through field observations and recorded records, after which we set up trend surface models and calculated the accumulated temperature differences and actual energy consumption for the heating period. We then compared the actual thermal efficiency and the theoretic thermal efficiency in the case of energy-saving technology based on relevant national standards. Although large amounts of fuels were consumed by households for heating, they only met 39.6% and 46.6% of the energy required to maintain a suitable living standard in Zhangguan Village and Hepan Village respectively. However, the current integrated thermal efficiency of energy consumption for household heating is only about 17%. These findings indicate that the inadequate heating in the area is not due to inadequate energy, but to inadequate technology. Therefore, the potential for improving integrated thermal efficiency by the application of energy-saving technologies is enormous.     

A multi-sourced data based framework for assisting utilities identify energy poor households: a case-study in Greece

ABSTRACT

This study introduces a framework that assists utilities effectively identify energy poor households among their clients. The framework is established upon an enhanced version of the well-known 10% measurement index, being adjusted by a set of weather-driven, income-oriented, and energy-oriented variables so that more accurate, indicative, and objective results are automatically derived through multi-sourced data. The proposed framework differs from the common, income-based ones, as well as other approaches that integrate information about the particularities of the households and their occupants, in a sense that it deconstructs energy poverty into its two core components, namely energy and income, and examines them jointly. The proposed framework is demonstrated in the region of Attica, Greece, exploiting a large dataset of households that use natural gas as a primary heating energy source. The results highlight the strengths of the proposed method, indicating also some of its limitations.     

Statistical analysis of residential building energy consumption in Tianjin

To analyze the effect of energy conservation policies on energy consumption of residential buildings, the characteristics of energy consumption and indoor thermal comfort were investigated in detail in Tianjin, China, based on official statistical yearbook and field survey data. A comprehensive survey of 305 households indicates that the mean electricity consumption per household is 3215 kWh/a, in which annual cooling electricity consumption is 344 kWh/a, and the mean natural gas consumption for cooking is 103.2 m³/a. Analysis of 3966 households data shows that space heating average intensity of residential buildings designed before 1996 is 133.7 kWh/(m²·a), that of buildings designed between 1996 and 2004 is 117.2 kWh/(m²·a), and that of buildings designed after 2004 is 105.0 kWh/(m²·a). Apparently, enhancing the performance of envelops is effective in reducing space heating intensity. Furthermore, the results of questionnaires show that 18% of the residents feel slightly warm and hot respectively, while 3% feel slightly cold in winter. Therefore, the electricity consumption in summer will rise for meeting indoor thermal comfort.     

The transient house heating condition—the daily changes of the building envelope response factor (BER)

The current paper presents a logical extension of previous work [Lukić N. The transient house heating condition—the building envelope response factor (BER). Renewable Energy 2003;28:523–32.]. The daily changes of the earlier introduced building envelope response factor (BER) are shown, under transient heating conditions, during the first three heating days after a long non-heating period. Four simulation cases were studied: two-layered thermal-insulation-concrete house walls where the thermal-insulation had in, out and middle position according to inside of house and one-layered concrete house walls. Three different behaviors of central radiator heating system were simulated. The BER factor is considered an important pointer on influence of house walls to heating/cooling energy consumption and thermal comfort during transient conditions. In numerous simulations, using BER factor presentation, the start heating-period was investigated up to the achievement of defined thermal comfort inside the building walls. Alongside of the expected start peak, local peaks and off-peaks of BER factor appeared during first three heating days. Recognition of the daily changes of BER factor could enable aims, lower energy consumption and a rapid achievement of good thermal comfort. In this attempt, a building envelope, as a passive source of energy, is a critical factor.     

Disaggregating the causes of falling consumption of domestic heating energy in Germany

Consumption of domestic heating energy (space and water heating combined) in Germany has been falling in recent years. Official figures indicate it fell by 17 % in 2000–2011, from 669 to 564 TWh (temperature adjusted), while the population reduced by 2 % and the number of occupied dwellings increased by 3.4 %. German policy has strongly promoted deep thermal retrofits through regulation, information campaigns and subsidised loans. An important question is what portion of the reductions are due to progressive energy efficiency upgrade policy and what are due to other, non-technical factors such as demographic and behaviour change. We use national statistics and existing empirical studies to disaggregate the contribution of energy-efficiency improvements and nontechnical factors to the reduction in consumption. Our analysis suggests that around 20 % of the reductions are likely to be due to thermal retrofits of existing dwellings (insulation and new windows), 31 % due to boiler or heating system replacements, 1 % due to replacement of old dwellings with new, energy-efficient buildings, while some 45–50 % of the savings cannot be explained by these technical improvements. Most of these reductions appear to have occurred in non-upgraded, non-new dwellings. Although we do not know what caused these reductions, the finding is robust to very wide inaccuracies in figures for savings through technical improvements in buildings’ energy efficiency. More research is needed to explore the extent to which this implies increasing fuel poverty, increasing skills and motivation among non-poor households to heat more economically, or the effects of demographic and lifestyle changes. Highlights ? German home heating energy consumption fell by 105 TWh in 2000–2011 ? Approximately 31 % of this was due to boiler/heating system upgrades ? Approximately 20 % was due to window replacement and thermal envelope upgrade ? Less than 1 % was due to replacement of old with new stock ? Over 45 % cannot be explained by technical upgrade factors ? This could imply rising fuel poverty or more skilful heating behaviour