Anisotropic behavior of the capillary action in flip chip underfill

An underfill encapsulant can be used to improve the long-term reliability of flip chip interconnecting system by filling the gap between the chip and substrate around the solder bumps. The underfill encapsulant was filled by a capillary flow. This study was devoted to investigate the anisotropic effects of the capillary action induced by the solder bumps. A modified Hele-Shaw flow model, considering the flow resistance in both the thickness direction and the restrictions between solder bumps, was used. A capillary force model, depending on the direction of filling flow, for full array solder bumps was proposed. The capillary force was formulated based on quadrilateral arrangement of solder bumps. It was found that the capillary action is not the same for different directions. In the 45° direction, enhancement of the capillary flow was noticed for a bump pitch within a critical value. The edge preferential flow during the underfill experiment could be attributed to the anisotropic behavior of the capillary action.     

Mechanical loading of flip chip joints before underfill: the impact on yield and reliability

The underfill-facilitated migration from ceramic to lower cost laminate substrates has become a powerful enabler of direct chip attach by offering lower cost, greater electrical functionality, and a smaller system footprint over comparable packaging technologies. Once underfilled, flip chip on laminate has proven extremely reliable even in severe automotive environments. However, between the process steps of reflow and underfill cure, unprotected flip chip solder joints assembled to laminate boards are susceptible to damage and breakage if mishandled. Here, the survivability and long-term reliability of flip chip joints was studied over a range of applied strains. Mechanical loading of joints was applied via beam deflections of populated, but nonunderfilled, laminate boards. Electrical continuity was monitored before and after testing to determine when the load applied to the flip chip exceeded the joint fracture strength. The propensity for solder joint fracture was then calculated as a function of solder bump size and also as a function of strain rate. Analysis of the mechanical properties of solder revealed assembly strategies which reduce bump damage and eliminate yield loss during the process steps leading up to underfill cure. Both strained and unstrained units were then underfilled and cycled between −50 and +150 °C. While mechanical damage was evident in bump cross-sections of strained flip chip assemblies, the fatigue lives of underfilled solder joints were found to be independent of the size of mechanical loads applied before underfill.     

Failure mechanism of lead-free solder joints in flip chip packages

The failure mechanisms of SnAgCu solder on Al/Ni(V)/Cu thin-film, underbump metallurgy (UBM) were investigated after multiple reflows and high-temperature storage using a ball shear test, fracture-surface analysis, and cross-sectional microstructure examination. The results were also compared with those of eutectic SnPb solder. The Al/Ni (V)/Cu thin-film UBM was found to be robust enough to resist multiple reflows and thermal aging at conditions used for normal production purposes in both SnAgCu and eutectic SnPb systems. It was found that, in the SnAgCu system, the failure mode changed with the number of reflows, relating to the consumption of the thin-film UBM because of the severe interfacial reaction between the solder and the UBM layer. After high-temperature storage, the solder joints failed inside the solder ball in a ductile manner in both SnAgCu and SnPb systems. Very fine Ag₃Sn particles were formed during multiple reflows in the SnAgCu system. They were found to be able to strengthen the bulk solder. The dispersion-strengthening effect of Ag₃Sn was lost after a short period of thermal aging, caused by the rapid coarsening of these fine particles.     

Investigation on flip chip solder joint fatigue with cure-dependent underfill properties

A cure-dependent viscoelastic constitutive relation is applied to describe the curing process of epoxy underfill in flip chip on board (FCOB). The chemical shrinkage of the epoxy underfill during the curing process is applied via incremental initial strains. Thus, the stress and strain build-up, caused by the simultaneous increase in stiffness and shrinkage during the curing process, are simulated. Accelerated fatigue experiments with thermal cycles from -55/spl deg/C to 80/spl deg/C are carried out for a specially designed flip chip configuration. Based on the obtained curing induced initial stress and strain fields, thermo-mechanical predictions are presented for the test carriers. The solder bumps are modeled with temperature dependent visco-plastic properties. A combination of a Coffin-Manson based fatigue relation and a creep fatigue model is used as fatigue failure criterion. The results show that the finite element method (FEM)-based fatigue life predictions match better with the experimental results, if the curing induced initial stress state is taken into account. The effect of cure-induced hydrostatic stress is qualitatively investigated by using a modified energy partitioning damage model with a correction factor in the creep damage formulation to take into account the effect of the hydrostatic stress.     

The effect of microstructural and geometrical features on the reliability of ultrafine flip chip microsolder joints

A thermodynamic approach was used to investigate solder alloy systems containing Sn, Ag, Sb, and Pb, during both equilibrium and Scheil cooling conditions. The modeled microstructure was used to explore recent experimental results and to establish the microstructure-property relationships in microsolder joints. This approach is shown to be very useful in the transition from Pb-Sn to lead-free solders by enabling the consideration of contamination by a small amount of Pb. Molten solder interacts with the under bump metallization or print circuit board (PCB) metallization to form intermetallic compounds (IMCs). A truncated sphere structure was used to predict the solder joint geometry, and a two-dimensional finite-element (FE) method was adopted to investigate the kinetics of the dissolution of Au during the reflow process. The dissolution of Au into different volumes of solder material for three sizes of joints has been studied. In the modeling of the dissolution kinetics, the Nernst-Brunner equation is found to have poor validity for these calculations because of the dramatic change in the microscopic geometry and boundary conditions for joints at 100 μm in size or smaller. A combined thermodynamic and kinetic modeling approach, with a novel interface for implementation, is also briefly discussed.     

Vibration reliability test and finite element analysis for flip chip solder joints

Vibration fatigue test and analysis methodology for flip chip solder joint fatigue life assessment have been developed by performing vibration tests with constant G-level and varying G-level input excitation. The linear cumulative damage analysis method (Miner’s rule) predicts non-conservative result for vibration fatigue life of flip chip solder joint. Finite element analysis (FEA) using a global-local-beam modeling method was used to calculate the natural frequency and were compared to experimental data. A quasi-static finite element analysis method was developed to investigate solder joint stress strain behavior for solder joint vibration fatigue life prediction. Harmonic finite element analysis was also carried out to predict solder joint fatigue life. Results from quasi-static analysis and harmonic analysis were compared. Based on Miner’s rule and stress amplitude results from FEA results, different assumed cumulative damage index (CDI) factors were investigated in fatigue life prediction.     

Forming solder joints by sintering eutectic tin-lead solder paste

It is possible to form solder joints with mechanical integrity, but not mechanical strength comparable to that achieved by melting the solder, by sintering eutectic tin-lead solder paste where small amounts of eutectic Sn-Bi powder are added to the paste. This increases the rate of sintering through liquid-phase sintering.     

热循环加载片式元器件带空洞无铅焊点的可靠性

建立了片式元器件带空洞无铅焊点有限元分析模型,研究了热循环加载条件下空洞位置和空洞面积对焊点热疲劳寿命的影响.结果表明:热循环加载条件下空洞位置和空洞面积显著影响焊点热疲劳寿命.空洞位置固定于焊点中部且面积分别为7.065×10-4,1.256×10-3,1.963×10-3和2.826×10-3mm2时,焊点热疲劳寿...     

Studies of electroless nickel under bump metallurgy—Solder interfacial reactions and their effects on flip chip solder joint reliability

The electroless-deposited Ni-P under bump metallurgy (UBM) layer was fabricated on Al pads for Sn containing solder bumps. The amount of P in the electroless Ni film was optimized by controlling complexing agents and the pH of plating solution. The interfacial reaction at the electroless Ni UBM/solder interface was investigated in this study. The intermetallic compound (IMC) formed at the interface during solder reflowing was mainly Ni₃Sn₄, and a P-rich Ni layer was also formed as a by-product of Ni-Sn reaction between the Ni-Sn IMC and the electroless Ni layer. One to four microns of Ni₃Sn₄ IMC and a 1800–5000 Å of P-rich Ni layer were formed in less than 10 min of solder reflowing depending on solder materials and reflow temperatures. It was found that the P-rich Ni layer contains Ni, P, and a small amount of Sn (～7 at.%). Further cross-sectional transmission electron microscopy (TEM) analysis confirmed that the composition of the P-rich Ni layer was 75 at.% Ni, 20at.%P, and 5at.%Sn by energy-dispersive x-ray spectroscopy (EDS) and the phase transformation occurred in the P-rich Ni layer by observing grain size. Kirkendall voids were also found in the Ni₃Sn₄ IMC, just above the P-rich Ni layer after extensive solder reflow. The Kirkendall voids are considered a primary cause of the brittle fracture; restriction of the growth of of the P-rich Ni layer by optimizing proper processing conditions is recommended. The growth kinetics of Ni-Sn IMC and P-rich Ni layer follows three steps: a rapid initial growth during the first 1 min of solder reflow, followed by a reduced growth step, and finally a diffusion-controlled growth. During the diffusion-controlled growth, there was a linear dependence between the layer thickness and time^1/2. Flip chip bump shear testing was performed to measure the effects of the IMC and the P-rich Ni layers on bump adhesion property. Most failures occurred in the solder and at the Ni₃Sn₄ IMC. The brittle characteristics of the Ni-Sn IMC and the Kirkendall voids at the electroless Ni UBM-Sn containing solder system cause brittle bump failure, which results in a decreased bump adhesion strength.     

Plastic constraint of large aspect ratio solder joints

The aspect ratio (joint area/joint thickness) of thin (0.001-0.006 in.) surface mount solder (60S-40Pb) joints plays an important role in determining the mechanical properties and fracture behavior of the joints. This study demon-strates that plastic constraint of a large aspect ratio 60Sn-40Pb solder joint can develop triaxial (hydrostatic) stresses several times greater than the average tensile strength of the bulk solder material. A four to sixfold increase in average joint stress and up to a tenfold increase in peak stress was measured on joints with aspect ratios ranging from 400 to 1000. Although a direct relationship of the aspect ratio to the average tensile stress is shown, as the Friction Hill model predicts, the observed stress increase is not nearly as high but proportional to the classical prediction. This is attributed to the existence of internal defects (oxide particles and micro-voids) and transverse grain boundaries which fail producing internal free surfaces. Thus, the actual aspect ratio is thickness/d², where d equals the distance between internal surfaces. The fracture of these constrained joints was brittle, with the separation occurring between a tin-rich copper tin intermetallic at the interface and the solder matrix. Voids within the solder joint are shown to relieve the plastic constraint and lower the average tensile stress of the joint. The Friction Hill model may play an important role in explaining the small percentage of atypical solder joint failures which sometimes occur on electronic assemblies. In particular, the sudden failure of a thin joint in a strain controlled environment may be attributed to the development of a large hydrostatic stress component. Therefore, a flaw free, plastically constrained joint which develops a high stress state will be a high risk candidate for failure.     

基于裂纹扩展的无铅焊点阻抗等效模型

以单个无铅焊点为研究对象,根据裂纹扩展及趋肤效应建立了无铅焊点的阻抗等效模型,给出了模型参数的计算方法,并用Matlab软件对模型进行了仿真.结果表明:随裂纹扩展,焊点阻抗经历了一个由缓慢变化到突变的过程,且信号频率越高,阻抗突变时间越早;在500 MHz信号作用下,当裂纹面积约为焊点横截面的75％时,焊点阻抗便发生突...     

Influence of underfill materials on the reliability of coreless flip chip package

A flip chip package was assembled by using 6-layer laminated polyimide coreless substrate, eutectic Sn37Pb solder bump, two kinds of underfill materials and Sn_3.0Ag_0.5Cu solder balls. Regarding to the yield, the peripheral solder joints were often found not to connect with the substrate due to the warpage at high temperature, modification of reflow profile was benefit to improve this issue. All the samples passed the moisture sensitive level test with a peak temperature of 260 °C and no delamination at the interface of underfill and substrate was found. In order to know the reliability of coreless flip chip package, five test items including temperature cycle test (TCT), thermal shock test (TST), highly accelerated stress test (HAST), high temperature storage test (HTST) and thermal humidity storage test (THST) were done. Both of the two underfill materials could make the samples pass the HTST and THST, however, in the case of TCT, TST and HAST, the reliability of coreless flip chip package was dominated by underfill material. A higher Young’s modules of underfill, the more die crack failures were found. Choosing a correct underfill material was the key factor for volume production of coreless flip chip package.     

Modeling thermomechanical fatigue behavior of Sn-Ag solder joints

Stresses that develop because of the coefficient of thermal expansion (CTE) mismatch between solder and substrate/components contribute to thermomechanical fatigue (TMF) of the solder joints. However, the relative importance of several processes that contribute to damage accumulation and its role in affecting the reliability of the solder joints are far from being understood. Aging, creep/stress relaxation, and stress/strain reversals are some of the important processes. These processes are affected by service conditions, such as the temperature extremes experienced, rates of heating and cooling, dwell times at the extreme temperatures, and so on. In addition, the elastic and plastic anisotropy of tin could also contribute to the damage accumulation during TMF of Sn-based solders. This preliminary effort to model TMF in Sn-Ag solder joints will consider the role of each of these parameters, with significant emphasis on the anisotropic-elastic behavior of Sn grains.     

In-situ observation of material migration in flip-chip solder joints under current stressing

This investigation studies how electron flow distribution and the vacancy concentration gradient affect the diffusion of solder atoms in a flip-chip solder joint under current stress. The migration of materials was traced by monitoring the positions of 21 Pb grains of the eutectic PbSn solder joint. Experimental results indicate that the displacements of the Pb grains were not uniform along the electron flow direction. Additionally, certain Pb grains exhibited lateral displacements. The nonuniform material migration is attributable to the combined effect of electromigration and the vacancy concentration gradient, which was caused by electromigration. By measuring the displacements of the Pb grains, we estimated that the DZ* value of Sn in eutectic SnPb solder was 5×10⁻¹⁰ cm²/s.     

Effects of underfill material properties on the reliability ofsolder bumped flip chip on board with imperfect underfill encapsulants

Three different types of underfill imperfections were considered; i.e., (1) interfacial delamination between the underfill encapsulant and the solder mask on the PCB (crack initiated at the tip of underfill fillet), (2) interfacial delamination between the chip and the underfill encapsulant (crack initiated at the chip corner), and (3) the same as (2) but without the underfill fillet. Five different combinations of coefficient of thermal expansion (CTE) and Young's modulus with the aforementioned delaminations were investigated. A fracture mechanics approach was employed for computational analysis. The strain energy release rate at the crack tip and the maximum accumulated equivalent plastic strain in the solder bumps of all cases were evaluated as indices of reliability. Besides, mechanical shear tests were performed to characterize the shear strength at the underfill-solder mask interface and the underfill-chip passivation interface. The main objective of the present study is to achieve a better understanding in the thermo-mechanical behavior of flip chip on board (FCOB) assemblies with imperfect underfill encapsulants     

底充胶固化工艺对低k倒装焊器件可靠性的影响

利用四点弯曲实验测试了一组芯片(30片)的强度,使用威布尔统计模型描述了芯片失效率的分布,预测了在后续热循环过程中芯片的失效概率。通过有限元软件研究了底充胶固化工艺对芯片上方垂直开裂应力、焊点等效塑性应变及低k层最大等效应力的影响。结果表明:与未经固化的相比,底充胶固化工艺使得芯片的失效率从0.08%增大到0.37%,焊点的等效塑性应变增大约7倍,低k层的最大等效应力增大约18%。     

Morphological stability of solder reaction products in flip chip technology

We have studied two kinds of solder reactions between eutectic SnPb and Cu. The first is wetting reaction above the melting point of the solder, and the second is solid state aging below the melting point of the solder. In wetting reaction, the intermetallic compound (IMC) formation has a scallop-type morphology. There are channels between the scallops. In solid state aging, the IMC formation has a layer-type morphology. There are no channels but grain boundaries between the IMC grains. Why scallops are stable in wetting reactions has been an unanswered question of fundamental interest. We have confirmed that the scallop-type morphology is stable in wetting reaction by re-wetting the layer-type IMC by molten eutectic SnPb solder. In less than 1 min, a layer-type Cu₆Sn₅ is transformed back to scallops by the molten solder at 200 C. In analyzing these reactions, we conclude that the scallop-type morphology is thermodynamically stable in wetting reaction, but the layer-type morphology is thermodynamically stable in solid state aging, due to minimization of interfacial and grain boundary energies.     

Effects of intermetallic morphology at the metallic particle/solder interface on mechanical properties of Sn-Ag-based solder joints

Mechanical incorporation of metallic particles in the Sn-Ag-based solder resulted in various intermetallic compound (IMC) morphologies around these particles during reflow. Unlike with the Ni particles, the IMCs formed around Cu and Ag particles are relatively insensitive to reflow profiles employed. The IMC formed around the Ni particles ranges from “sunflower” morphology to “blocky” morphology with increasing time and temperature above liquidus during the heating part of the reflow profile. Mechanical properties, such as simple shear strength and creep behavior, of these composite solders were affected by the IMC morphologies in the composite solders investigated. Sunflower-shaped IMC formed around an Ni particles resulted in higher simple shear strength and better creep properties.     

Damage accumulation under repeated reverse stressing of Sn-Ag solder joints

To better understand the effect of repeated reverse stress in solder joints, a new testing method was developed. Tin-silver solder joints were fabricated, constrained between Cu blocks, and then subjected to repeated shear loading in a tensile tester. Constant strain amplitudes were applied to simulate service conditions. However, large loads were used to accelerate the damage accumulation. Microstructural features of the damage were very similar to those found with studies on thermomechanical fatigue (TMF) of small, single shear lap samples. Concentrated-shear banding or striations were observed to form along Sn dendrites. The load behavior of the solder with each cycle and during hold times at the extreme strain amplitude was consistent with damage accumulating with each successive cycle. Effects of strain amplitude, hold times at the stress extremes, number of cycles, and solder-joint thickness were found to play significant roles on the stress-strain behavior and surface damage.     

SnAgCu钎料焊点电化学迁移的原位观察和研究

通过恒定电压条件下的水滴实验,对Sn-4Ag-0.5Cu钎料焊点的电化学迁移(ECM)行为进行了原位观察和研究。结果表明,树枝状的金属沉积物总是在阴极上生成,并向着阳极方向生长,在接触阳极的瞬间,发生短路失效。外加电压不超过2 V时,形成的沉积物数目往往比较少并且粗大。焊点间距的减少和外加电压的增加都会使得ECM造成的短路失效时间显著缩短。当钎料不能完全包裹焊盘或者焊盘局部位置上钎料的厚度很薄时,发生ECM的金属除了来自钎料焊点,还来自Cu焊盘;钎料中的Ag不发生迁移。