Psychological Processes Underlying Risky Decisions in Drug Abusers.

Decision-making deficits are considered to be a significant contributing factor for drug abuse. Drug abusers performed poorly on a simulated gambling task (A. Bechara, H. Damasio, D. Tranel, & S. Anderson, 1994); however, the psychological processes that contribute to these deficits are unknown. The authors used cognitive decision models with a simulated gambling task (SGT) to examine underlying processes of decision making in 66 drug abusers and 58 control participants. As expected, male drug abusers performed more poorly than male controls, and model results showed that male drug abusers placed greater emphasis on wins. The findings for women were less clear because control women performed at chance level on the SGT. Additional studies of gender differences on the SGT are needed to clarify these findings of discrepant performance in the control women. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Risk taking by adolescents with maladaptive behavior histories.

"High-risk" adolescents with maladaptive behavior histories and control adolescents (15–17 years of age) participated in a laboratory experiment that measured aspects of risk-taking behavior. High-risk adolescents had behavioral profiles entailing combinations of past substance use disorder, early onset substance use, conduct disorder, criminal history, and dropping out of school. A risk-taking task presented participants with "risky" and nonrisky response options. The risky response option offered a low probability of a large monetary reward or a high probability of a smaller monetary loss and resulted in a net loss of monetary earnings. The nonrisky option protected current earnings. High-risk adolescents chose the risky option more often, had lower overall earnings, and were more likely to persist in making (losing) risky responses following a single gain on the risky option. The data replicate previous findings with high-risk adults. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Effects of increasing failure and success on military and economic risk taking.

Investigated the effect of success, failure, and time spent in decision making on the degree of military and economic risk taking. A complex experimental simulation technique was employed as the research method to permit comparison of data obtained in a more "real world-like" setting with results reported by investigators using small-scale laboratory techniques. Results from 88 undergraduates show that risk taking increases with the length of time that decision-making groups spend in working on a task. After some time, risky decision making may become concentrated in 1 decision area at a time, even though risks could be taken in more areas. Comparisons to laboratory results suggest some commonalities and differences with regard to risk-taking results. (37 ref.) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Impaired Decision Making Related to Working Memory Deficits in Individuals With Substance Addictions.

This study examined whether individuals with substance dependence (ISDs) show impairments in working memory and whether there is a relationship between their impairments in decision making as measured by the gambling task (GT) paradigm and working memory as measured by a delayed nonmatching to sample (DNMS) task. Using the GT, 11% of healthy control participants and 61% of ISDs opted for choices with high immediate gains in spite of higher future losses. For the ISDs and controls with equal GT impairments, the ISDs performed significantly lower than controls on the DNMS task. The nonimpaired ISDs on the GT also performed significantly worse than matched controls on the DNMS task. The DNMS task deficit in ISDs was across all delay times, suggesting the deficit may lie in the "executive" process of working memory, which supports earlier findings (E. M. Martin et al., 2003). The authors suggest that the prefrontal cortex hosts multiple distinct mechanisms of decision making and inhibitory control and that ISDs may be affected in any one or combination of them. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Framing of task performance strategies: effects on performance in a multiattribute dynamic decision making environment

It is well documented that the way a static choice task is "framed" can dramatically alter choice behavior, often leading to observable preference reversals. This framing effect appears to result from perceived changes in the nature or location of a person's initial reference point, but it is not clear how framing effects might generalize to performance on dynamic decision making tasks that are characterized by high workload, time constraints, risk, or stress. A study was conducted to examine the hypothesis that framing can introduce affective components to the decision making process and can influence, either favorably (positive frame) or adversely (negative frame), the implementation and use of decision making strategies in dynamic high-workload environments. Results indicated that negative frame participants were significantly impaired in developing and employing a simple optimal decision strategy relative to a positive frame group. Discussion focuses on implications of these results for models of dynamic decision making.     

Neuropsychological correlates of decision making in patients with bulimia nervosa.

In addition to the core psychopathology of bulimia nervosa (BN), patients with BN often show impulsive behavior that has been related to decision making deficits in other patient groups, such as individuals with anorexia nervosa and pathological gamblers. However, it remains unclear whether BN patients also show difficulties in decision making. In this study, 14 patients with BN and 14 healthy comparison subjects, matched for age, gender, education, body mass index, and intelligence, were examined with the Game of Dice Task (M. Brand, E. Fujiwara, et al., 2005), a gambling task that has fixed winning probabilities and explicit rules for gains and losses, as well as with a neuropsychological test battery and personality questionnaires. On the task, the patients with BN chose the disadvantageous alternatives more frequently than did the comparison subjects. Performance on the Game of Dice Task was related to executive functioning but not to other neuropsychological functions, personality, or disease-specific variables in the BN group. Thus, in patients with BN, decision making abnormalities and executive reductions can be demonstrated and might be neuropsychological correlates of the patients' dysfunctional everyday-life decision making behavior. Neurocognitive functions should be considered in the treatment of BN. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Response inhibition deficit is involved in poor decision making under risk in nonamnesic individuals with alcoholism.

Individuals with alcoholism exhibit poor decision making as reflected by their continued alcohol use despite encountering problems and by low performance in laboratory tasks of decision making. Here, the authors investigated the relative contribution of several distinct processes of executive functions in performance on the Iowa Gambling Task (IGT; A. Bechara, A. R. Damasio, H. Damasio, & S. W. Anderson, 1994) in recently detoxified individuals with alcoholism. Compared to matched healthy participants, individuals with alcoholism showed below-normal scores in the last 20 trials of the IGT as well as on other tasks of executive functions, specifically those assessing the capacity to manipulate information stored in working memory, detect abstract rules, or inhibit prepotent responses. Prepotent response inhibition best predicted performance in the late trials of the IGT, that is, when participants have likely acquired knowledge about the reward/punishment contingencies of the task. These results underline the important role that response inhibition plays in decision making, especially in risky situations, when knowledge of the probability of a given outcome becomes available (i.e. decisions under risk). (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Peer Influence on Risk Taking, Risk Preference, and Risky Decision Making in Adolescence and Adulthood: An Experimental Study.

In this study, 306 individuals in 3 age groups--adolescents (13-16), youths (18-22), and adults (24 and older)--completed 2 questionnaire measures assessing risk preference and risky decision making, and 1 behavioral task measuring risk taking. Participants in each age group were randomly assigned to complete the measures either alone or with 2 same-aged peers. Analyses indicated that (a) risk taking and risky decision making decreased with age; (b) participants took more risks, focused more on the benefits than the costs of risky behavior, and made riskier decisions when in peer groups than alone; and (c) peer effects on risk taking and risky decision making were stronger among adolescents and youths than adults. These findings support the idea that adolescents are more inclined toward risky behavior and risky decision making than are adults and that peer influence plays an important role in explaining risky behavior during adolescence. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Expertise in Group Problem Solving: Recognition, Social Combination, and Performance.

This laboratory study assessed how recognition of expertise affects group decision making and performance. Three-person groups and independent individuals solved 4 intellective problem-solving tasks in 3 experimental conditions: 4 individual tasks, 1 individual task followed by 2 group tasks followed by 1 individual task, or 1 individual task followed by 2 group tasks (with intragroup rankings) followed by 1 individual task. Findings indicate that (a) both groups with ranking information and groups without are fairly well calibrated with respect to expertise, (b) group decisions were best approximated by "expert-weighted" decision schemes in which the highest performing member of the group has twice the influence of other group members, and (c) groups performed at the level of the best of an equivalent number of individuals. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Application of a computational decision model to examine acute drug effects on human risk taking.

In 3 previous experiments, high doses of alcohol, marijuana, and alprazolam acutely increased risky decision making by adult humans in a 2-choice (risky vs. nonrisky) laboratory task. In this study, a computational modeling analysis known as the expectancy valence model (J. R. Busemeyer & J. C. Stout, 2002) was applied to individual-participant data from these studies, for the highest administered dose of all 3 drugs and corresponding placebo doses, to determine changes in decision-making processes that may be uniquely engendered by each drug. The model includes 3 parameters: responsiveness to rewards and losses (valence or motivation); the rate of updating expectancies about the value of risky alternatives (learning/memory); and the consistency with which trial-by-trial choices match expected outcomes (sensitivity). Parameter estimates revealed 3 key outcomes: Alcohol increased responsiveness to risky rewards and decreased responsiveness to risky losses (motivation) but did not alter expectancy updating (learning/memory); both marijuana and alprazolam produced increases in risk taking that were related to learning/memory but not motivation; and alcohol and marijuana (but not alprazolam) produced more random response patterns that were less consistently related to expected outcomes on the 2 choices. No significant main effects of gender or dose by gender interactions were obtained, but 2 dose by gender interactions approached significance. These outcomes underscore the utility of using a computational modeling approach to deconstruct decision-making processes and thus better understand drug effects on risky decision making in humans. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Executive functions, information sampling, and decision making in narcolepsy with cataplexy.

Objective: Narcolepsy with cataplexy (NC) affects neurotransmitter systems regulating emotions and cognitive functions. This study aimed to assess executive functions, information sampling, reward processing, and decision making in NC. Method: Twenty-one NC patients and 58 healthy participants performed an extensive neuropsychological test battery. Results: NC patients scored as controls in executive function tasks assessing set shifting, reversal learning, working memory, and planning. Group differences appeared in a task measuring information sampling and reward sensitivity. NC patients gathered less information, tolerated a higher level of uncertainty, and were less influenced by reward contingencies than controls. NC patients also showed reduced learning in decision making and had significantly lower scores than controls in the fifth block of the IOWA gambling task. No correlations were found with measures of sleepiness. Conclusions: NC patients may achieve high performance in several neuropsychological domains, including executive functions. Specific differences between NC patients and controls highlight the importance of the hypocretin system in reward processing and decision making and are in line with previous neuroimaging and neurophysiological studies. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2011 APA, all rights reserved)     

Cognitive Performance and Autonomic Reactivity in Abstinent Drug Abusers and Nonusers.

In this study the authors compared the performance of abstinent drug abusers (n = 21) and nonuser control participants (n = 20) in neurocognitive and emotional functions by use of the Rogers Decision Making Task, Gambling Task, Emotional Stroop, impulsivity continuous performance task (CPT), and vigilance CPT. Skin conductance (SC) and heart rate (HR) monitoring was synchronized with task performance. Groups showed similar performance for vigilance, impulsivity, and emotional interference; however, drug abusers showed stronger SC responses. Drug abusers performed more poorly on the Gambling and Rogers Decision Making Tasks. When making risky decisions, drug abusers showed significantly less increase in SC activity than controls and exhibited lower HRs throughout performance on all tasks. In conclusion, complex tasks involving decision making, sensitivity to consequences, and emotional regulation discriminated between drug abusers and controls. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The role of sexual arousal and sexual partner characteristics in HIV+ MSM's intentions to engage in unprotected sexual intercourse.

Objective: This study investigated the effects of sexual arousal and sexual partner characteristics as determinants of HIV+ men who have sex with men's (MSM) intentions to engage in unprotected sex. Design: In a computer-based controlled experiment, 67 HIV+ MSM underwent a sexual arousal manipulation and indicated their intentions to engage in unprotected sex with hypothetical partners who differed in terms of HIV serostatus, physical attractiveness, relationship type, and preference for condom use. Main Outcome Measures: Computer-delivered questions assessed HIV+ MSM's intentions to engage in various sexual acts with each hypothetical partner. Results: As predicted, sexually aroused HIV+ MSM indicated stronger intentions to engage in unprotected sex than nonaroused HIV+ MSM; and having a partner who was attractive, HIV+, long term, or who preferred not to use condoms, also led to riskier intentions. Several significant interactions among these factors were found, which were generally consistent with predictions and with theory and research on cognitive processing and decision making. Conclusions: These findings have implications for understanding risky sexual behavior among HIV+ individuals and for the development of interventions to reduce this risk. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Differences in laboratory parameters in clinical categories (CDC/93) of HIV infection

OBJECTIVE: To establish the difference between the evolutive clinical categories (CDC/93) of the HIV infection, on the basis of diverse laboratory parameters. MATERIAL AND METHOD: 332 samples of blood, from 118 patients with HIV infection revised every three months from 1986, were studied. Determinations: haematologic, biochemical and immunologic study. Classification in each review by CDC/93 system. Statistical analysis (R-SIGMA) comparing by ANOVA and NEWMANN-KEULS the averages of the laboratory variables in the clinics categories ("A", "B" and "C"). RESULTS: There are very significant laboratory differences (p < 0.01) between the asymptomatic patients ("A") and the AIDS cases ("C"), with important decrease of hemoglobin, platelets, leukocytes, albumin, CD4+ and CD8+ T cells in the "C" category. On the contrary there is a marked increase of erythrocyte sedimentation, triglycerides, immunoglobulin A and beta 2-microglobulin in those patients with AIDS. CONCLUSION: AIDS patients present very significant differences in ten laboratory parameters, compared to the asymptomatic HIV infected patients. The follow up of these parameters may have prognostic value of AIDS evolution and be useful for the therapeutic decision making.     

Use of warning messages to modify gambling beliefs and behavior in a laboratory investigation.

This laboratory study assessed the effectiveness of warning messages intended to aid in the control of gambling. Participants were 120 undergraduate students from an urban state university who reported previous gambling activity. They were recruited to play a computerized roulette game with imaginary money. Money left at the end of play was exchanged for raffle tickets for a prize drawing. Participants were randomly assigned to 1 of 2 conditions. In the warning-message condition, participants received an educational component discussing common irrational beliefs expressed by gamblers and, while playing roulette, viewed brief messages that addressed irrational gambling beliefs. In the control condition, participants received an educational component on the history of roulette but no warning messages. Participants in the warning-message condition reported significantly fewer irrational beliefs and demonstrated less risky gambling behavior than those in the control condition. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

A contribution of cognitive decision models to clinical assessment: Decomposing performance on the Bechara gambling task.

The Bechara simulated gambling task is a popular method of examining decision-making deficits exhibited by people with brain damage, psychopathology, antisocial personality, or drug abuse problems. However, performance on this task is confounded by complex interdependencies between cognitive, motivational, and response processes, making it difficult to sort out and identify the specific processes responsible for the observed behavioral deficits. The authors compare 3 competing cognitive decision models of the Bechara task in terms of their ability to explain the performance deficits observed in Huntington's disease patients as compared with healthy populations and people with Parkinson's disease. The parameters of the best fitting model are used to decompose the observed performance deficit of the Huntington patients into cognitive, motivational, and response sources. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Interpersonal relationships and task performance: An examination of mediation processes in friendship and acquaintance groups.

This study used multiple methods to examine group processes (information sharing, morale building, planning, critical evaluation, commitment, monitoring, and cooperation) that mediate the effect of relationship level on group performance. The study uses a 2 by 2 experimental design, crossing relationship (friendship vs. acquaintance) as a between-subjects variable and task type (decision making vs. motor) as a within-subject variable. Fifty-three 3-person groups participated in the study, and data from 4 types of measurement were used to analyze the mediating processes between relationship level and task performance. Friendship groups performed significantly better than acquaintance groups on both decision-making and motor tasks because of a greater degree of group commitment and cooperation. Critical evaluation and task monitoring also significantly increased decision-making performance, whereas positive communication mediated the relationship between friendship and motor task performance. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Deficits in complex motor functions, despite no evidence of procedural learning deficits, among HIV+ individuals with history of substance dependence.

Human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) and drugs of abuse affect common neural systems underlying procedural memory, including the striatum. The authors compared performance of 48 HIV seropositive (HIV+) and 48 HIV seronegative (HIV-) participants with history of cocaine and/or heroin dependence across multiple Trial Blocks of three procedural learning (PL) tasks: Rotary Pursuit (RP), Mirror Star Tracing (MST), and Weather Prediction (WP). Groups were well matched on demographic, psychiatric, and substance use parameters, and all participants were verified abstinent from drugs. Mixed model analyses of variance revealed that the individuals in the HIV+ group performed more poorly across all tasks, with a significant main effect of HIV serostatus observed on the Mirror Star Tracing and a trend toward significance obtained for the Rotary Pursuit task. No significant differences were observed on the Weather Prediction task. Both groups demonstrated significant improvements in performance across all three procedural learning tasks. It is important to note that no significant Serostatus × Trial Block interactions were observed on any task. Thus, the individuals in the HIV+ group tended to perform worse than those in the HIV- group across all trial blocks of procedural learning tasks with motor demands, but showed no differences in their rate of improvement across all tasks. These findings are consistent with HIV--associated deficits in complex motor skills, but not in procedural learning. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The life of Maurice Virenque (1888-1946). From "Gueules Cassées" to cervicofacial facelift

Neuroimaging and neuropsychological studies have consistently implicated dorsolateral prefrontal cortex as abnormal in schizophrenia. However, other areas of frontal cortex have received far less attention. In particular, few studies have examined orbital frontal regions with other than olfactory tests. In the present study we wished to assess the functional capability of orbital frontal cortex using a test developed by Bechara et al. (1994) that assesses a subject's capacity to acquire a preference through reward and punishment, using a gambling task that involved gains and losses of play money. Thirty normal subjects and 12 patients with schizophrenia (three undifferentiated, eight paranoid, one schizoaffective) comprised the sample in the present study. We found that patients with schizophrenia exhibited a pattern of findings similar to that of normals and dissimilar to that of patients with known orbital frontal damage. In our study, both normal subjects and schizophrenic patients chose most frequently from decks of cards in which there were frequent rewards and infrequent penalties, as might be expected on the basis of operant conditioning literature. We also found that performance on this task was not correlated with tests of working memory or long-term memory, suggesting that the development of a preference may occur implicitly. Our findings also argue against a general deficit in schizophrenia, as performance on the gambling task appeared relatively uncompromised.     

Neuropsychological performance and CD4 levels in HIV-1 asymptomatic infection

The performance of 68 HIV-1 seropositive asymptomatic (HIV+) subjects stratified on CD4 levels were compared with 82 HIV-1 seronegative (HIV-) subjects on a battery of neuropsychological, mood state, and perceived health status measures. The neuropsychological test battery included measures of attention, reaction time, memory, intellectual ability, psychomotor speed, frontal lobe or "executive" function, and decision time. None of the HIV+ subjects were taking antiviral agents. The groups did not differ for age, mood state, or WAIS-R Verbal and Performance IQ scores. Due to group differences for education and weekly ethanol consumption, both variables were used as covariates in multivariate analyses of variance. Relatively few differences were observed between subgroups of HIV+ patients or between these subgroups and control subjects. These data suggest that factors other than absolute levels of immunosuppression as expressed by CD4 levels alone, appear to be responsible for the deficits observed in HIV+ asymptomatic patients.