Emissions from electricity generation in Malaysia

Emissions in the process utilization produce adverse effects on the environment that influence human health, organism growth, climatic changes and so on. The Kyoto protocol, produced by the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate change (UNFCC) in December 1997, prescribed a legally binding greenhouse gas emission target about 5% below their 1990 level. About 160 countries including Malaysia now adopt this protocol. Electricity generation is one of the main contributors to emissions in the country. In order to calculate the potential emissions produced by this activity, the type of fuel use should be identified. Malaysia hopes to gradually change fuel use from 70% gas, 15% coal, 10% hydro, and 5% petroleum in the year 2000 to 40% gas, 30% hydro, 29% coal, and only 1% petroleum by the year 2020. The changes in fuel type have changed the pattern of emission production. This study attempts to predict the pattern of emissions from 2002 to 2020 due to the changes in fuel use. The calculation is based on emissions for unit electricity generated and the percentages of fuel use for electricity generation. The study found that the electricity generation company has produced huge emissions from their power plants in this country.     

Carbon dioxide emission from the Turkish electricity sector and its mitigation options

In this study, electricity generation associated CO₂ emissions and fuel-specific CO₂ emission factors are calculated based on the IPCC methodology using the data of fossil-fueled power plants that ran between 2001 and 2008 in Turkey. The estimated CO₂ emissions from fossil-fueled power plants between 2009 and 2019 are also calculated using the fuel-specific CO₂ emission factors and data on the projected generation capacity of the power plants that are planned to be built during this period. Given that the total electricity supply (planned+existing) will not be sufficient to provide the estimated demand between 2011 and 2019, four scenarios based on using different fuel mixtures are developed to overcome this deficiency. The results from these scenarios show that a significant decrease in the amount of CO₂ emissions from electricity generation can be achieved if the share of the fossil-fueled power plants is lowered. The Renewable Energy Scenario is found to result in the lowest CO₂ emissions between 2009 and 2019. The associated CO₂ emissions calculated based on this scenario are approximately 192 million tons lower than that of the Business As Usual Scenario for the estimation period.     

Energy demand and carbon emissions under different development scenarios for Shanghai,China

In this paper, Shanghai's CO₂ emissions from 1995 to 2006 were estimated following the IPCC guidelines. The energy demand and CO₂ emissions were also projected until 2020, and the CO₂ mitigation potential of the planned government policies and measures that are not yet implemented but will be enacted or adopted by the end of 2020 in Shanghai were estimated. The results show that Shanghai's total CO₂ emissions in 2006 were 184 million tons of CO₂. During 1995–2006, the annual growth rate of CO₂ emissions in Shanghai was 6.22%. Under a business-as-usual (BAU) scenario, total energy demand in Shanghai will rise to 300 million tons of coal equivalent in 2020, which is 3.91 times that of 2005. Total CO₂ emissions in 2010 and 2020 will reach 290 and 630 million tons, respectively, under the BAU scenario. Under a basic-policy (BP) scenario, total energy demand in Shanghai will be 160 million tons of coal equivalent in 2020, which is 2.06 times that of 2005. Total CO₂ emissions in 2010 and 2020 in Shanghai will be 210 and 330 million tons, respectively, 28% and 48% lower than those of the business-as-usual scenario. The results show that the currently planned energy conservation policies for the future, represented by the basic-policy scenario, have a large CO₂ mitigation potential for Shanghai.     

Power sector development in India with CO2 emission targets: Effects of regional grid integration and the role of clean technologies

The power sector in India at present comprises of five separate regional electricity grids having practically no integrated operation in between them. This study analyses the utility planning, environmental and economical effects of integrated power sector development at the national level in which the regional electric grids are developed and operated as one integrated system. It also examines the effects of selected CO₂ emission reduction targets in the power sector and the role of renewable power generation technologies in India. The study shows that the integrated development and operation of the power system at the national level would reduce the total cost including fuel cost by 4912 million $, total capacity addition by 2784 MW, while the emission of CO₂, SO₂ and NO_x would be reduced by 231.6 (1.9%), 0.8 (0.9%), 0.4 (1.2%) million tons, respectively, during the planning horizon. Furthermore, the study shows that the expected unserved energy, one of the indices of generation system reliability, would decrease to 26 GWh under integrated national power system from 5158 GWh. As different levels of CO₂ emission reduction targets were imposed, there is a switching of generation from conventional coal plants to gas fired plants, clean coal technologies and nuclear based plants. As a result the capacity expansion cost has increased. It was found that wind power plant is most attractive and economical in the Indian perspective among the renewable options considered (Solar, wind and biomass). Copyright © 2003 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

基于能耗水平研究的发电企业碳配额管理探讨

碳排放权交易市场正式启动以后,发电企业的碳资产管理能力,直接决定其履约时的盈亏状况。针对西南某省部分发电企业碳排放强度和能耗水平不匹配的现象,本文从推导发电企业供电碳排放强度和供电标煤耗的计算公式着手,找到数据不匹配的原因;同时,根据推导公式将《2019-2020年全国碳排放权交易配额总量设定与分配实施方案(发电行业)(征求意见稿)》碳排放基准值换算为发电企业日常使用的能耗水平数据。结果表明,该能耗数据低于全国火电机组能耗平均水平,意味着全国大部分电力企业当前只要做好基础的碳排放数据管理,履约时即可实现盈利。"十四五"期间,发电企业要加强采取技术、运行等有效管理手段,确保在全国碳排放权交易市场中实现经济效益最大化。     

An evaluation of the potential of the use of wasted hydroelectric capacity to produce hydrogen to be used in fuel cells in order to decrease CO2 emissions in Brazil

The use of water wasted in hydroelectric plants as normalization dam excess, which constitute a hydrodynamic potential useful to generate electric energy which can be subsequently used to produce hydrogen and its subsequent consumption in fuel cells, has been considered as an alternative for hydraulic energy-rich countries like Brazil. The case is examined in which all the water wasted in the hydroelectric plants, spilled by dam gates to maintain acceptable water levels, from the 101 largest Brazilian hydroelectric plants was used to produce hydrogen. During the year of 2008, the electric energy produced from this utilisation would have been equivalent to 106.2 TWh, an amount that corresponds to an increase of ca. 30% of the total electric energy produced in the country. Furthermore, if this amount of hydrogen was used in the replacement of internal combustion vehicles by fuel cells, this would have prevented the production of 2,000,000 tons of CO₂ emissions per day. The economic balance (cost of electricity produced using the wasted water minus cost of gasoline consumed) indicates a savings of ca. 200 million US$. This plan would also significantly decrease production and release of greenhouse gases.     

Factors affecting CO2 emission from the power sector of selected countries in Asia and the Pacific

This study analyzes the key factors behind the CO₂ emissions from the power sector in fifteen selected countries in Asia and the Pacific using the Log-Mean Divisia Index method of decomposition. The roles of changes in economic output, electricity intensity of the economy, fuel intensity of power generation and generation structure are examined in the evolution of CO₂ emission from the power sector of the selected countries during 1980–2004. The study shows that the economic growth was the dominant factor behind the increase in CO₂ emission in ten of the selected countries (i.e., Australia, China, India, Japan, Malaysia, Pakistan, South Korea, Singapore, Thailand and Vietnam, while the increasing electricity intensity of the economy was the main factor in three countries (Bangladesh, Indonesia and Philippines). Structural changes in power generation were found to be the main contributor to changes in the CO₂ emission in the case of Sri Lanka and New Zealand.     

Evaluating carbon dioxide emissions in international trade of China

China is the world's largest emitter of carbon dioxide (CO₂). As exports account for about one-third of China's GDP, the CO₂ emissions are related to not only China's own consumption but also external demand. Using the input–output analysis (IOA), we analyze the embodied CO₂ emissions of China's import and export. Our results show that about 3357 million tons CO₂ emissions were embodied in the exports and the emissions avoided by imports (EAI) were 2333 million tons in 2005. The average contribution to embodied emission factors by electricity generation was over 35%. And that by cement production was about 20%. It implies that the production-based emissions of China are more than the consumption-based emissions, which is evidence that carbon leakage occurs under the current climate policies and international trade rules. In addition to the call for a new global framework to allocate emission responsibilities, China should make great efforts to improve its energy efficiency, carry out electricity pricing reforms and increase renewable energy. In particular, to use advanced technology in cement production will be helpful to China's CO₂ abatement.     

Emission control of nitrogen oxides in the oxy-fuel process

The interest in oxy-combustion as a method to capture carbon dioxide has increased drastically during recent years. The oxy-fuel process offers new process conditions and may take advantage of innovative techniques as well as of new ways to apply conventional measures for emission control. The present work reviews available techniques for controlling both the emission of nitrogen oxides (NO_x) to the atmosphere and the content of NO_x in the captured carbon dioxide. The results indicate that for a first generation of oxy-fuel power plants, conventional primary NO_x control should be sufficient to meet today's emission regulations, if based on emission per unit of fuel supplied. However, there are several opportunities for new methods of NO_x control in oxy-fuel plants, depending on future emission and storage legislation for carbon capture schemes. Improved understanding of the behaviour of nitric oxide and nitrogen dioxide during compression and condensation of carbon dioxide is needed, as well as improved knowledge on the influence of the parameters of oxy-combustion on nitrogen chemistry.     

A review on energy scenario and sustainable energy in Indonesia

The global energy consumption is likely to grow faster than the population growth. The fuel consumption was growing from 6630 million tons of oil equivalents (Mtoe) in 1980 to 11,163 Mtoe in 2009. This projected consumption will increase 1.5% per year until 2030 and reach 16,900 Mtoe and the main drivers of this growth are mostly developing countries in Asia. Indonesia is one of the developing countries and energy supply is an important factor for all-around development. The country's energy consumption still depends on non-renewable energy such as crude oil, coal and natural gas as sources of energy. Utilization of fossil fuel continuously contributes to huge amount of greenhouse gases emission that leads to climate change. Facing such an unfavorable situation, the government of Indonesia prioritizes on energy supply securities by diversification of energy resources. The energy mixes in Indonesia based on five main resources; these are crude oil, natural gas, coal, hydropower, and renewable energy. Although the country encourages utilizing renewable energy, the contribution is only around 3%. Considering natural condition and geography, this country is blessed with great potential of renewable energy such as solar energy, wind energy, micro hydro and biomass energy. Noting the potential of renewable and sustainable energy resources in the country, the government must pay more attention on how to utilize it. Many efforts have been done to promote renewable energy such as to create energy policy and regulations, yet it still did not give any satisfactory result. Government, non-government agencies and the public should take a more proactive step to promote and use renewable energy in order to achieve the secure and environmentally sustainable energy resources.     

The European power plant infrastructure—Presentation of the Chalmers energy infrastructure database with applications

This paper presents a newly established database of the European power plant infrastructure (power plants, fuel infrastructure, fuel resources and CO₂ storage options) for the EU25 member states (MS) and applies the database in a general discussion of the European power plant and natural gas infrastructure as well as in a simple simulation analysis of British and German power generation up to the year 2050 with respect to phase-out of existing generation capacity, fuel mix and fuel dependency. The results are discussed with respect to age structure of the current production plants, CO₂ emissions, natural gas dependency and CO₂ capture and storage (CCS) under stringent CO₂ emission constraints.     

Experimental studies on cofiring of coal and biomass blends in India

Concerns regarding the potential global environmental impacts of fossil fuels used in power generation and other energy supplies are increasing worldwide. One of the methods of mitigating these environmental impacts is increasing the fraction of renewable and sustainable energy in the national energy usage. A number of techniques and methods have been proposed for reducing gaseous emissions of NO_x,SO₂ and CO₂ from fossil fuel combustion and for reducing costs associated with these mitigation techniques. Some of the control methods are expensive and therefore increase production costs. Among the less expensive alternatives, cofiring has gained popularity with the electric utility producers. This paper discusses the ‘gaseous emission characteristics namely NO_x,SO₂, suspended particulate matter and other characteristics like specific fuel consumption, total fuel required, actual and equivalent evaporation, total cost of fuel, etc. from a 18.68 MW power plant with a travelling grate boiler, when biomass was cofired with bituminous coal in three proportions of 20%, 40% and 60% by mass. Bagasse, wood chips (Julia flora), sugarcane trash and coconut shell are the biomass fuels cofired with coal in this study.     

Estimating the health damage costs of syrian electricity generation system using impact pathway approach

Based on the simplified impact pathway approach the environmental impacts from airborne pollutant emissions of Syrian electricity generation system have been assessed and the associated external damage costs to human health have been evaluated. The obtained results indicate that the environmental impacts can add considerable external cost to the typical generation cost. The estimated externalities vary between 2.5 and 0.07 US-cents per generated kWh for heavy fuel oil and NG fired power plants respectively. For the fuel oil fired power plants the resulting external cost, arise mainly from Sulphates impact, amounts to about 25% of the present generation costs. These results indicate the advantage of NG fired power plants as clean generation technology and the necessity of supplying oil fired power plants with SO₂ emission reduction technologies.     

A review on emissions and mitigation strategies for road transport in Malaysia

The emissions from road transport are serious threats to urban air quality and global warming. The first step to develop effective policies is to determine the source and amount of emissions produced. This paper attempts to review emissions from road transport using COPERT 4 model and examined possible emission mitigation strategies. In road transport, results have show that passenger cars are the main cause of CO₂, N₂O and CO emissions, while motorcycles are main source of hydrocarbon (HC) emissions. However, light duty vehicles and heavy duty vehicles are the main contribution of particulate matters. The total CO₂ equivalent emissions for road transport in Malaysia are 59,383.51 ktonnes for year 2007. Further results show that CO₂ emission is the primary source of greenhouse gas pollution which is 71% of the total CO₂ equivalent. A parametric study was conducted to estimate the potential emission mitigation strategies for road transport by taking the emissions in 2007 as a reference year. It was observed that promoting the public transport is an effective strategy to reduce emissions and fuel consumption from the technical view point. It can totally save up to 1044 ktonnes of fuel consumption and total CO₂ equivalents emissions can be decreased by 7%. It was noted that, fleet renewal and promoting natural gas vehicles will significantly contribute in the reduction of emissions in Malaysia.     

Transport sector CO2 emissions growth in Asia: Underlying factors and policy options

This study analyze the potential factors influencing the growth of transport sector carbon dioxide (CO₂) emissions in selected Asian countries during the 1980–2005 period by decomposing annual emissions growth into components representing changes in fuel mix, modal shift, per capita gross domestic product (GDP) and population, as well as changes in emission coefficients and transportation energy intensity. We find that changes in per capita GDP, population growth and transportation energy intensity are the main factors driving transport sector CO₂ emission growth in the countries considered. While growth in per capita income and population are responsible for the increasing trend of transport sector CO₂ emissions in China, India, Indonesia, Republic of Korea, Malaysia, Pakistan, Sri Lanka and Thailand; the decline of transportation energy intensity is driving CO₂ emissions down in Mongolia. Per capita GDP, population and transportation energy intensity effects are all found responsible for transport sector CO₂ emissions growth in Bangladesh, the Philippines and Vietnam. The study also reviews existing government policies to limit CO₂ emissions growth, such as fiscal instruments, fuel economy standards and policies to encourage switching to less emission intensive fuels and transportation modes.     

燃煤电站汞排放量的预测模型

燃煤电站排放汞是主要的汞污染源之一。从煤中汞含量分布、锅炉燃煤过程以及燃烧之后的各个过程来预测汞排放量。影响燃煤电站汞排放的主要因素有煤中汞含量,电站锅炉炉型,锅炉运行条件,所采用的烟气清洁装置包括颗粒脱除装置和脱硫装置的类型。利用文献资料中的统计数据归纳得到汞排放修正因子,同时利用其结果简略估算了中国燃煤电站的年汞排放量。1999~2003年中国燃煤电站的大气汞排放量年平均增长率达到了9.59%,向废渣中排放的汞量年平均增长率为8.49%,尤其是从2002年~2003年的涨幅最大,2003年燃煤电站向大气的汞排放量达到了86.8t之多,废渣汞排放量为28.94t。图4表4参19     

Mitigation of carbon dioxide from Indonesia's energy system

In Indonesia, energy consumption (excluding non-commercial energy) increased from 328 MBOE in 1990 to 478 MBOE in 1995. As a consequence, energy sector CO₂ emissions increased from 150 million tons to over 200 million tons during the same period. The present rapid economic growth Indonesia is experiencing (7–8%) will continue in the future. Based on a BAU scenario, primary energy supply for the year 2020 will be 18,551 PJ, an increase of 5.9% annually from 1990 CO₂ from the energy system will increase from 150 Teragrams in 1990 to 1264 Teragram in 2020. The mitigation scenario would reduce total CO₂ emissions from the BAU scenario by 10% for the year 2000 and 20% by 2020. Some demand side management and energy conservation programs are already included in the BAU scenario. In the mitigation scenario, these programs are expanded, leading to lower final energy demand in the industrial and residential sectors.

Indonesia's total primary energy supply in 2020 is approximately 5% lower for the mitigation scenario than for the BAU scenario. In the BAU scenario, coal and oil have the same contribution (25%). In the mitigation scenario, natural gas and nonfossil fuels such as hydropower, geothermal, and nuclear have higher contributions.     

Hydrogen production and CO2 fixation by flue-gas treatment using methane tri-reforming or coke/coal gasification combined with lime carbonation

The production of hydrogen and the fixation of CO₂ can be achieved by treatment of flue gases derived from fossil fuel fired power plants via catalytic methane tri-reforming or by coal gasification in the presence of CaO. A two-step process is designed to be carried out in two reactors: a) a catalytic gasifier or steam-reformer, operating exothermally at 900–1000 K, with inputs of the flue gas, a carbonaceous source, steam and air, as well as CaO from the calciner, and outputs of H₂, and of “spent” CaCO₃ to the calciner; b) a calciner, operating endothermally at 1100–1300 K, with inputs of spent CaCO₃ from the gasifier, make-up fresh CaCO₃, and outputs of CO₂, as well as of CaO, partly recycled to the gasifier and partly processed in a cement plant. Thermochemical equilibrium calculations along with mass/energy balances indicate that for flue-gas treatment by tri-reforming, CO₂ emission avoidance of up to ∼59% and fossil fuel savings of up to ∼75% may be attained when concentrated solar energy is supplied as high-temperature process heat for the calcination step, all relative to conventional H₂ production by coal gasification. If instead fossil fuel would be used to drive the calcination step, the CO₂ emission avoidance and the fuel savings would be only 20% and 67%, respectively. Estimated annual H₂ production from a coal-fired 500 MWe burner by the proposed flue-gas treatment using either CH₄-tri-reforming or coal gasification would amount to 0.7 × 10⁶ or 0.6 × 10⁶ metric tons H₂, respectively. Estimated fossil fuel consumption for H₂ production by tri-reforming or coke gasification would be 149 or 143 GJ fuel/ton H₂.     

Achieving 60% CO2 reductions within the UK energy system—Implications for the electricity generation sector

This paper explores how investment in the UK electricity generation sector can contribute to the UK goal of reducing CO₂ emissions with 60% by the year 2050 relative to the 1990 emissions. Considering likely development of the transportation sector and industry over the period, i.e. a continued demand growth and dependency on fossil fuels and electricity, the analysis shows that this implies CO₂ emission reductions of up to 90% by 2050 for the electricity sector. Emphasis is put on limitations imposed by the present system, described by a detailed database of existing power plants, together with meeting targets on renewable electricity generation (RES) including assumptions on gas acting as backup technology for intermittent RES. In particular, it is investigated to what extent new fossil fuelled and nuclear power is required to meet the year 2050 demand as specified by the Royal Commission on Environmental Pollution (RCEP). In addition, the number of sites required for centralized electricity generation (large power plants) is compared with the present number of sites. A simulation model was developed for the analysis. The model applies the UK national targets on RES, taken from Renewable Obligation (RO) for 2010 and 2020 and potentials given by RCEP for 2050, and assumed technical lifetimes of the power plants of the existing system and thus, links this system with targets for the years 2010, 2020 and 2050.     

Energy,environmental and economic effects of Renewable Portfolio Standards (RPS) in a Developing Country

This paper analyses the potential of renewable energy for power generation and its energy, environmental and economic implications in Pakistan, using a bottom up type of long term energy system based on the MARKAL framework. The results show that under a highly optimistic renewable portfolio standard (RPS) of 80%, fossil fuel consumption in 2050 would be reduced from 4660 PJ to 306 PJ, and the GHG emissions would decrease from 489 million tons to 27 million tons. Nevertheless, price of the electricity generation will increase significantly from US$ 47/MWh under current circumstances (in the base case) to US$ 86/MWh under RPS80. However the effects on import dependency, energy-mix diversity, per unit price of electricity generation and cost of imported fuels indicate that, it may not be desirable to go beyond RPS50. Under RPS50 in 2050, fuel consumption of the power sector would reduce from 21% under the base case to 9% of total fossil fuels supplied to the country. It will decrease not only GHG emission to 170 million tons but also will reduce import dependency from 73% under the base case to 21% and improve energy diversity mix with small increase in price of electricity generation (from US$ 47/MWh under the base case to US$ 59/MWh under RPS 50).