Nuclear power: Status report and future prospects

This article reviews the current status and future prospects of commercial nuclear electric power, with emphasis on issues of safety, physical security, proliferation, and economics. Discussions of these issues are presented separately for the current operating fleet, for new reactor designs similar in size to the current fleet, and for prospective new reactors of substantially smaller size. This article also discusses the issue of expansion of commercial nuclear power into new countries. The article concludes with recommendations, related both to technical issues and policy considerations. The major implications for policy are that although the level of safety and security achieved in today's operating reactor fleet worldwide is considered broadly acceptable, some advanced designs now under development potentially offer demonstrably safer performance, and may offer improved financial performance also. Management and safety culture are vital attributes for achieving adequate safety and security, as are a strong political culture that includes an absence of corruption, an independent regulatory authority, and a separation of nuclear operation from day-to-day politics. In some countries that are now considering a nuclear-power program for the first time, careful attention to these attributes will be essential for success.     

Nuclear power: Understanding the economic risks and uncertainties

This paper identifies the fundamental elements and critical research tasks of a comprehensive analysis of the costs and benefits of nuclear power relative to investments in alternative baseload technologies. The proposed framework seeks to: (i) identify the set of expected parameter values under which nuclear power becomes cost competitive relative to alternative generating technologies; (ii) identify the main risk drivers and quantify their impacts on the costs of nuclear power; (iii) estimate the nuclear power option value; (iv) assess the nexus between electricity market structure and the commercial attractiveness of nuclear power; (v) evaluate the economics of smaller sized nuclear reactors; (vi) identify options for strengthening the institutional underpinnings of the international safeguards regime; and (vii) evaluate the proliferation resistance of new generation reactors and fuel cycles.     

Current status and future forecasting of biofuels technology development

Over the last few decades, the significant increase in energy demand followed by increasing fossil fuels depletion convinced countries authority to choose renewable energy to satisfy demand. Therefore, global enthusiasm in renewable energy such as bioenergy technology is increased. Is biofuels technology ready to address the global demand for energy? Investigating in technology development can answer. In this paper, the current statuses of biofuel technologies are determined. Regarding patent codes, seven technologies are identified, which are CHP turbines for biofeed, gas turbine for biofeed, biodiesel, grain bioethanol, bio‐pyrolysis, torrefaction of biomass, and cellulosic bioethanol. The results of patent investigating show that the biodiesel technology is in the mature status and its technology trend is going to go downward. The others six technologies are in the growth stage. Analysis of 57 619 patents in biofuel technologies for technology forecasting has been done by technology life cycle. The torrefication of biomass technology has started its growth stages and will become mature in 2061. In this research, the S‐curves of all biofuel groups are plotted and maturity phases are forecasted.     

Nuclear uncertainties: Energy loans for fission power

The energy requirements and costs of the complete nuclear fuel cycle of a light water reactor (LWR) power plant are analysed, from mining the uranium ore to dismantling the nuclear facilities and final disposal of the radioactive wastes. The most critical parameters are identified and discussed. The analysis has an empirical character: only data which are supported by practice are used. The conclusions differ significantly from previous studies, mainly because of the complete approach and the use of recent figures and trends.     

Renewable and nuclear power: A common future?

Nuclear power and renewable energy are the main options to bring down the carbon intensity of commercial energy supply. What technology is unlimited backstop supply depends on its performance on the sustainability criteria: democratic decided, globally accessible, environmental benign, low risk, affordable.     

Solar photovoltaic electricity: Current status and future prospects

We review the technical progress made in the past several years in the area of mono- and polycrystalline thin-film photovoltaic (PV) technologies based on Si, III-V, II-VI, and I-III-VI₂ semiconductors, as well as nano-PV. PV electricity is one of the best options for sustainable future energy requirements of the world. At present, the PV market is growing rapidly at an annual rate of 35-40%, with PV production around 10.66 GW in 2009. Si and GaAs monocrystalline solar cell efficiencies are very close to the theoretically predicted maximum values. Mono- and polycrystalline wafer Si solar cells remain the predominant PV technology with module production cost around $1.50 per peak watt. Thin-film PV was developed as a means of substantially reducing the cost of solar cells. Remarkable progress has been achieved in this field in recent years. CdTe and Cu(In,Ga)Se₂ thin-film solar cells demonstrated record efficiencies of 16.5% and almost 20%, respectively. These values are the highest achieved for thin-film solar cells. Production cost of CdTe thin-film modules is presently around $0.76 per peak watt.     

Current status and future prospects for the PVMaT project

The goals of the Photovoltaic Manufacturing Technology project (PVMaT) are to help the US PV industry improve photovoltaic manufacturing processes and accelerate cost reductions for PV components and systems. PVMaT is in its ninth year of implementation, and subcontracts with industry have been completed from four solicitations for R&D on manufacturing process problems. We are in the second year of subcontracts for a fifth PVMaT solicitation.Based on the latest (1998) data from ten PVMaT industrial participants, the average direct manufacturing cost for these producers has been reduced by 29% – from $4.08 to $2.91 per peak watt since 1992 – and there has also been a more than five-fold increase in manufacturing capacity – from 13.1 to 73.3 MW. We believe R&D on manufacturing processes contributes significantly to expeditious reductions in PV manufacturing costs, and we identify areas for future R&D.     

The lignite electricity‐generating sector in Greece: Current status and future prospects

Lignite plays an important role in Greece's energy sector as it satisfies over 70% of country's needs in electric power. The extraction of lignite takes place mainly in three regions of Greece, namely Ptolemais‐Amyndeon, Megalopolis and Florina. The annual production of lignite is around 60 million tons, out of which 48 million tons derive from the coal fields of northern Greece (Ptolemais‐Amyndeon and Florina). Almost the entire lignite production is consumed for electricity generation, while small amounts of lignite are used for briquettes and other applications. The Greek coal‐fired power plants, which are about 4500 MW, use conventional technology and they are old (an average of 30 years). In the coming years new coal fields will be exploited in Florina—another 2.5 million tons of coal—in order to satisfy the currently under construction 365 MW plant located at Meliti, Florina, Northern Greece. Even though the lignite reserves are widespread in Greece and other areas such as Elassona and Drama could possibly host power plants, it is expected that the Florina power plant will be the last coal‐fired plant to be build in the country. Lignite has to compete with natural gas—the construction of the main gas pipeline network has been completed—imported oil and renewable energy sources. The new EU regulations on power plant emissions raise obstacles for the firing of lignite, although it is low in sulphur. It must be shown that lignite produces low cost electricity in a environmentally friendly manner. The utilization of fly ash and land reclamation can improve the situation in lignite mining. In particular, specific attention was paid to further research and potential use of fly ash in road construction, the production of bricks and concrete, and the production of zeolites from lignitic fly ash. The use of clean coal technologies in power plants can solve many emission problems. Specific measures to increase the efficiency of lignite‐fired power units might include: identification of the loss sources of every unit, improvement of the cold end of the steam turbines, optimization of the beater wheel mills operation, and the combination of natural gas‐fired turbines with the existing boilers. The liberalization of the electricity market needs to be considered seriously from the lignite industry, since the potential electricity producers can freely choose from all kinds of fuels, such as imported coal, oil, gas and renewables. However, Greek lignite meets the requirements for the security of supply, as indicated in the EU's Green Paper. It needs only to be competitive in the new energy sector by improving mining and combustion conditions. Further research on these topics, through the European Commission's ECSC and Framework Programmes, as well as the national programmes, is required. Copyright © 2004 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Biofuel implementation in East Europe: Current status and future prospects

There is a continuously increasing interest concerning the biofuel implementation in Europe, mainly because of environmental protection and energy supply security reasons. In this context, the European Union (EU) strongly encourages the use of biofuels through a number of Directives. To that effect, EU members follow the Directives implementing various political, fiscal and technical measures and incentives. In the light of the potential created by the recently joined Eastern European countries, an increasing interest is shown in the whole biofuel supply chain within the EU. In parallel, the status of the Eastern European countries domestic market, as far as biofuels are concerned, is an interesting issue, since most of these countries present a significant potential, however still lagging in biofuel implementation. In the above context, the objective of the present work is to give a concise and up-to-date picture of the present status of biofuel implementation in East Europe. The work also aims at identifying the prospects of these countries as far as biofuels are concerned and their role in the EU framework as potential suppliers of a wider market.     

2D materials-based membranes for hydrogen purification: Current status and future prospects

Hydrogen (H₂) is the most viable energy carrier to replace fossil fuels and achieve zero net emission. To realize hydrogen-based society, the development of energy-efficient and high-purity H₂ production techniques is one of the key issues as currently mature H₂ purification technologies are energy-intensive. Membrane separation is an attractive option to obtain high-purity H₂ gas with low energy consumption. However, membrane separation processes are often limited by the low performance of commercial polymeric membranes despite the progress made over the last few decades. As an alternative, two-dimensional nanomaterials (2DNMs) have recently drawn tremendous attention as membrane materials thanks to their unique physical and chemical properties. Herein, we seek to offer a comprehensive review of 2DNM-based membranes for H₂ gas separation. Also, we discuss the current technological challenges and provide our perspectives for future research.     

Solar water heating in Lebanon: Current status and future prospects

The use of solar thermal collectors is an economic alternative for water heating in Lebanon. More than 100,000 m² of collector area has been installed while the market can accommodate more than 1.5 million m². The domestic sector, which is a main energy-consuming sector, stands to benefit the most from the implementation of such systems. Despite the lack of encouraging legislation, the solar thermal market has been continuously growing over the past decade. Both local manufacturers and importers have been active in the field. In addition, advanced forced circulation and collective systems are being used in large establishments, individual house and apartment buildings. Internationally funded demonstration projects using collective systems have been implemented in recent years with promising results. Simplified initial estimates indicate a payback period of 4–5 years while advanced mathematical models (RETScreen) indicate that the most advanced evacuated tube technology has a payback period of less than 9 years at current market prices. With decreasing cost per square meter of installed collectors, payback periods are expected to rapidly decrease. Regulatory support and tax breaks, if implemented, will have a positive effect on the market. The current increases in diesel prices are increasing demand on solar thermal water heaters.     

Lessons of nuclear power French ‘success’ and the breeder

In an earlier article the author has argued that the turbulent history of nuclear power in Britain and the USA stems from the technology itself, and has little to do with the very different institutional arrangements made for the new technology in the two countries. Nuclear plant has various features which make its planning extraordinarily difficult. Its long lead time, large unit size, capital intensity and dependence on complex infrastructure combine to ensure that mistakes are likely to be made in planning the technology and that what mistakes do occur are expensive. This article aims to expand on the earlier one in two ways; by looking at the apparent success of the French nuclear programme which seems to run counter to the thesis of the earlier article, and by trying to draw lessons from the earlier analysis for the breeder reactor.     

Nuclear power,climate change and energy security: Exploring British public attitudes

Public attitudes towards nuclear power in the UK have historically been deeply divided, but as concern about climate change and energy security has exerted an increasing influence on British energy policy, nuclear power has been reframed as a low-carbon technology. Previous research has suggested that a significant proportion of people may ‘reluctantly accept’ nuclear power as a means of addressing the greater threat of climate change. Drawing on the results of a national British survey (n=1822), the current study found that attitudes towards nuclear remain divided, with only a minority expressing unconditional acceptance. In general, people who expressed greater concern about climate change and energy security and possessed higher environmental values were less likely to favour nuclear power. However, when nuclear power was given an explicit ‘reluctant acceptance’ framing – allowing people to express their dislike for nuclear power alongside their conditional support – concerns about climate change and energy security became positive predictors of support for nuclear power. These findings suggest that concern about climate change and energy security will only increase acceptance of nuclear power under limited circumstances—specifically once other (preferred) options have been exhausted.     

Electricity demand supply analysis: Current status and future prospects for Maharashtra,India

The growth potential of any state is linked with infrastructure and electricity infrastructure is the most important parameter for economic growth. Maharashtra, a prominent state in India consumes 12 per cent of India's electricity. Maharashtra's power sector is facing the electricity deficit and shortage since early 2005. On the other hand, industrial and service sectors are rising in the state. The present paper discusses electricity situational analysis of the state. Electricity demand analysis has been presented and comparison of state electricity demand vis-à-vis Mumbai's demand (state capital) has been carried out for two years. Variation for monthly average demand for two years and load shedding have also been analyzed. Power supply situation analysis and analysis of major power suppliers have been carried out. The State Load Distribution Center data is used to depict the load variation for a typical day. Interventions needed to sustainably meet the growing demands are also discussed.     

固体润滑技术的研究现状及展望

固体润滑是将固体物质涂或镀于摩擦界面,以降低摩擦,减少磨损的措施。当前,可以作为固体润滑剂的物质有石墨和二硫化钼等层状物质、塑料和树脂等高分子材料、软金属及其各种化合物等。在分析固体润滑机理的基础上,对常用的固体润滑材料,金属基润滑材料和高分子润滑材料的基本性质及使用特性进行了简要分析;简要说明了固体润滑技术的实际应用的基本常识;分析了各种状况下应该使用何种固体润滑剂;展望了固体润滑剂的发展方向。     

Nuclear power in open energy markets: A case study of Turkey

For many decades, like many developed countries, Turkey has controlled her electricity sector as a state-owned monopoly. However, faced with rapid electricity demand growth, Turkey started to consider nuclear option. The present paper aims at evaluating both the present status of nuclear power in general and its implications for Turkish energy market in particular. After examining existing nuclear power technology and providing a brief overview of nuclear power economics; it focuses on the repercussions of nuclear power for Turkish energy market. The paper concludes that, in the short run, it may be considered to keep nuclear power within Turkish energy mix because it is an important carbon-free source of power that can potentially make a significant contribution to both Turkey's future electricity supply and efforts to strengthen Turkey's security of supply. However, in the long term, nuclear power should be retained in Turkey only if it has a lower cost than competing technologies.     

Concentrating solar power:Current status and perspective

太阳能热发电是将太阳能转化为热能,通过热功转化过程发电的技术.太阳能热发电站具有发电功率相对平稳可控,运行方式灵活,可进行热电并供等优势,同时具有非常好的环境效益.太阳能热发电规模化发展后,近期能够作为调峰电源为风力发电,光伏发电等间歇性电源提供辅助服务.随着未来技术的优化提升,由大型太阳能热发电站组成的太阳能热发电厂有可能承担电力系统基础负荷.目前,全球太阳能热发电产业正在兴起,装机容量逐年增加,然而,我国在太阳能热发电关键技术研究上明显落后于先进国家,太阳能热发电产业发展速度明显滞后;另外,我国也没有发布明确的太阳能热发电产业激励政策,这直接导致了一批项目迟迟不能落地.     

Nuclear fusion: Status report and future prospects

The paper gives an overview of fusion research in the world. The prospects for fusion as an energy source for the future are reviewed. Environmental compatibility, safety and resources are discussed.     

Domestic solar water heating system in Oman: Current status and future prospects

The excessive usage of fossil fuels worldwide is causing environmental problems. One solution to these problems is the exploitation of available renewable energy resources, including solar energy. This exploitation of renewable energy resources becomes essential to meet the large energy demand that resulted in depletion of fossil fuel resources, fuel price uncertainty and volatility, and growing concerns about global warming. Oman is located in a geographical region with an abundant and reliable supply of solar energy throughout the year. This paper presents a thorough financial, economic and technical analysis of using Solar Water Heaters (SWHs) in residential units. It was found that using SWHs in all governorates of Oman can save up to 1859 GWh of electrical energy annually, which is equivalent to the annual energy produced by a power station of 212 MW size. Moreover, the net annual reduction in CO₂ emission exceeds 1.227 million tons. In addition, the economic feasibility of installing SWHs in residential units is presented. The study shows that the dissemination of SWHs in Oman requires setting policies that motivate people to use them. Besides, subsidies to SWHs customers and/or investors will help making the price of these devices more affordable to the public.     

A comprehensive review on biohydrogen production pilot scale reactor technologies: Sustainable development and future prospects

The current study focuses on a comprehensive review of the pilot scale production of biohydrogen and various factors affecting the design experiments. Biohydrogen is a clean energy carrier that can be used as a potential alternative to fossil fuels. Biohydrogen as a fuel has several advantageous attributes, including; carbon-neutral or carbon-zero nature, easy renewability, eco-efficient productivity (via biological routes), eco-friendly conversion, and the highest energy content among all existing fuels. Pilot-scale production of biohydrogen is limited because it requires a better understanding of the possible interactions involved in the process. In this review, biohydrogen production on various types of reactors such as stirred tank reactors, packed bed reactors, fluidized bed reactors, trickling filter reactors, etc., have been discussed. However, biohydrogen production has been mostly studied on small scale, the most challenging issue concerning large-scale production of biohydrogen is its relatively high cost over fuels from fossil owing to high feedstock and manufacturing costs. Therefore, cost-effective and eco-friendly biohydrogen production technologies should be necessarily developed and continuously improved to make this biofuel more competitive over its counterpart. In comparison with fossil fuels, biohydrogen has a high energy yield and is highly renewable. It can fulfill the future demand as a transport fuel.