Wind energy deployment in wind farm aging context. Appraising an onshore wind farm enlargement project: A contingent valuation study in the Center of Italy

In many European countries, the most suitable onshore sites for wind installations are almost fully engaged. Furthermore, the existing onshore wind farm capacity should be replaced in the next 10 years because the existing wind power plants are progressively aging in terms of depreciation, degradation and technological obsolescence. Without an adequate policy intervention, the Italian installed wind power capacity would return to the size of 2011 by 2030. In this scenario, the main opportunity for further growth in wind energy generation is wind farm enlargement. The aim of this paper is to assess the welfare change due to the proposed enlargement project. First, we investigate whether existing wind farms affect respondents' attitude and perception toward the potential enlargement of the wind farm by using the contingent valuation method. Second, we investigate the perception of the risk associated with the enlargement of a wind farm. In this case, we explicitly consider respondents' heterogeneity in perceiving the new project externalities. To achieve this objective, we use willingness to pay and willingness to accept measure to appraise welfare change due to the enlargement project. Each of these measures has been elicited jointly regarding the respective appraised externality impact perceived by the respondents. The individual and aggregate findings of this research can offer useful insights for planning and design enlargement schemes to achieve further growth in wind energy generation.     

Public perceptions of wind energy developments: Case studies from New Zealand

Although the public generally hold positive attitudes towards wind energy, proposals for the construction of new wind farms are often met with strong resistance. In New Zealand, where the government has recently introduced ambitious policy targets for renewable energy generation, negative perceptions of wind farms are increasingly evident and have the potential to prevent the achievement of these targets. This research sets out to examine what influences social resistance to wind farms in New Zealand. Drawing from public submissions on three wind farm proposals, a framework developed by Devine-Wright [Devine-Wright, P., 2005a. Beyond NIMBYism: towards an integrated Framework for Understanding Public Perceptions of Wind Energy. Wind Energy 8, 125–139.] was used as the basis for identification of factors affecting public perceptions of wind farms. The research found firstly that there was no apparent relationship between the proximity of submitters to a proposed wind farm and their likelihood of having a negative perception of the proposal. A wide range of factors written in submissions appeared to have affected the submitter's decision to support or oppose the wind farm proposal. Some of these were consistent with Devine-Wright's findings, but ten further factors were added to the framework to adequately cover the aspects raised in submissions. The findings have implications for the achievement of New Zealand's energy policy aspirations.     

Willingness to pay for reduced visual disamenities from offshore wind farms in Denmark

Expansion of offshore wind power plays a significant role in the energy policies of many EU countries. However, offshore wind farms create visual disamenities. These disamenities can be reduced by siting wind farms at larger distances from the coast—and accepting higher costs per kWh produced. In this paper willingness to pay for reducing the visual disamenities from future offshore wind farms is elicited using the economic valuation method Choice Experiments. The valuation scenario comprises the location of 720 offshore wind turbines (equivalent to 3600 MW) in farms at distances equal to: 12, 18 or 50 km from the shore, relative to an 8 km baseline. Using a fixed effect logit model average willingness to pay amounts were estimated as: 46, 96 and 122 Euros/household/year for having the wind farms located at 12, 18 and 50 km from the coast as opposed to 8 km. The results also reveal that WTP deviates significantly depending on the age of respondents and their experiences with offshore wind farms.     

Scalable minimum fatigue control of dispatchable wind farms

As wind energy penetration increases, wind power plants may be required to regulate their power production according to the load‐balancing needs of the power system. This presents an opportunity: when a wind farm tracks a power set‐point, its wind turbines are free to continuously vary their power production as long as the sum of their productions meets the power demand. Here, we present an intuitive wind turbine coordination policy that uses this flexibility to minimize the aggregate fatigue load on the turbines. An important property is that the policy is scalable enough to be applied to any wind farm size. Specifically, the computational effort required to compute and reconfigure the optimal coordination policy is the same as that of a single stand‐alone turbine, and the only centralized information processing needed to implement it is a single averaging operation. The efficiency of the coordination policy is illustrated in a simulation study based on real wind farm data. Copyright © 2016 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Analysis of wind power generation operation management risk in China

The Chinese government has made an important effort to diversify the country's energy mix and exploit different sources of renewable energy. Although China's installed wind power capacity has undergone a dramatic expansion over the past six years, the electricity generated from wind power has not increased as expected. Meanwhile, operational risks, such as high generation cost, mismatch between capacity and generation, intermittent wind power generation, power grid construction lag, deficient policy, and operation mechanism, have become increasingly prominent. If not controlled, these risks will negatively affect wind power development in China. Therefore, this paper established a quantitative analysis model of wind power operation management risk from two aspects, feed-in tariff and grid electricity (electricity being connected to the grid), based on an analysis of wind power operation management risk in China. Moreover, this study quantitatively assessed the risk of the operational management of a wind farm in Inner Mongolia. Finally, corresponding risk control strategies for the healthy development of wind power generation in China were proposed.     

A social marketing mix for renewable energy in Europe based on consumer stated preference surveys

Regardless their high potential, renewable energy resources are insufficiently exploited in Europe. This paper examines the potential of social marketing for renewable energy sources. It uses acceptability and willingness to pay results from existing surveys on renewable energy sources and generates a marketing mix for the state, organizations, businesses and consumers. These surveys typically claim to produce results that will be useful for policy making or marketing purposes. However, after they distinguish the parameters that affect acceptability or choice and willingness to pay, they do not go deeper to demonstrate the ways for the exploitation of the results. Therefore, this paper gauges the gap between the results from consumer stated preference studies and the insights generated for social marketing.     

Prioritizing of wind farm locations for hydrogen production: A case study

Many advantages of renewable energies, especially wind energy, such as abundance, permanence, and lack of pollution has encouraged many industrialized and developing countries to focus more on these clean and economic sources of energy. Identifying a good location that is suitable for the construction of a wind farm is one of the important initial steps in harnessing wind energy which is assessed this study. The purpose of this study is to prioritize and rank 13 cities of Fars province in Iran, in terms of their suitability for the construction of a wind farm. Six important criteria were used to prioritize and rank the cities. Wind power density is the most important criterion among these criteria which is calculated by obtaining the 3-h wind speed data between 2004 and 2013. DEA (Data Envelopment Analysis) method is used for prioritizing and ranking cities, and then AHP (Analytical Hierarchy Process), and FTOPSIS (Technique for Order of Preference by Similarity to Ideal Solution) methods are used to assess the validity of results. It is concluded that Izadkhast city is the suggested location for the construction of wind farm. The utilizing a wind-hydrogen energy conversion system will result in a substantial amount of hydrogen production (averagely 21.9 ton/year) when a 900 kW wind turbine is installed in this location.     

A wind-hydrogen energy storage system model for massive wind energy curtailment

With wind energy penetration rate increasing, wind energy curtailment turns severe in some wind farms nowadays and new wind farm construction trends to aggregate this situation. Therefore the need for massive energy storage technology such as “Power to gas” is growing. In this study, a model of integrating curtailed wind energy with hydrogen energy storage is established based on real time data in term of 10 min avg. throughout a whole year in a wind farm. Two wind/hydrogen production scenarios via water electrolysis are given and the influence exerted on payback period by electrolyser power and hydrogen price is talked in tandem as well as the model validity is specified in the conclusion section. Our results further stress the importance of hydrogen energy storage technology on addressing wind energy curtailment and disclose some regularities from an economical perspective.     

Assessing the determinants of local acceptability of wind-farm investment: A choice experiment in the Greek Aegean Islands

This paper aims at analysing the factors, which motivate communities to resist the installation of wind farms in their vicinity. To this end, the choice experiment methodology was employed in communities in two Greek Aegean Islands to assess the determinants of preferences towards different wind-farm projects. Unlike other studies, the willingness to accept welfare measure was adopted. The results of our analysis show that the conservation status of the area where the wind farms are to be installed, along with the governance characteristics of the planning procedure are the most important determinants of local community welfare in relation to wind farms. In contrast to other studies, we find that the physical attributes of wind farms appear to be of less relative importance from a local community welfare point of view. Implications for the EU's future energy policy are drawn.     

Developing and applying a GIS-assisted approach to evaluate visual impact in wind farms

Wind energy represents one of the most important renewable resources. Wind energy is a clean, renewable and its benefits are considered greater than the disadvantages. However, even though wind farms represent environmentally friendly projects, they frequently generate public resistance.One of the main disadvantages of wind farm construction projects is their poor aesthetic integration into the landscape. On the other hand, landscape impact of wind farms could be minimised if the visual impact is previously evaluated.As regards with the European legislation, the procedure of environmental impact assessment study is necessary before a wind farm project could be established. In contrast, there is not an objective methodology to assess the visual impact of wind farms.The aim of this work was to develop a methodology to predict and evaluate, before its construction, the visual impact of wind farms, taking into account the visualscape from different observation points.Proposed methodology could help to determine and evaluate the best location for new wind farm projects. Moreover, this method could be used as a consulting tool for public organization and private institutions, being quick, concise and clear.     

能量自主闭环的智能测风系统的研究

以风电场开发、气候气象等领域对精确、可靠的测风系统的需求为背景,搭建了一套可实现能量自主闭环的智能测风系统,对该智能测风系统所具有的风能信息精确获取与主动识别、风光储多种能源综合利用与能量自主闭环、区域性风能资源数据科学处理与传输等关键技术进行了介绍,以期为风电场选址提供科学依据,为其建设提供精确的参考数据.     

Site selection of offshore wind farms around the Korean Peninsula through economic evaluation

We have conducted a feasibility study on the development of offshore wind farms around the Korean Peninsula as part of the national plan. This study deals with the selection of the optimal site for an offshore wind farm. We set rating indices in order to select an optimal site of the candidate coasts, which include the expected B/C (benefit to cost) ratio, the possible installation capacity of the wind farm, the convenience of grid connection, and so on, for each candidate site. The expected B/C ratio is described as the benefit from the annual energy production compared to the costs that correspond to the construction of the turbine foundation, and the grid connection between the offshore wind farm and the substation on land. It can be found from the evaluation that the construction costs associated with the substructure and grid connection are crucial in determining the location of the first offshore wind farm in Korea. Consequently, we could select a top site among the candidate sites to be implemented as the first national project of offshore wind farm development.     

Maximizing the returns of LIDAR systems in wind farms for yaw error correction applications

Wind energy is an important source of renewable energy with significant untapped potential around the world. However, the cost of wind energy production is high, and efforts to lower the cost of energy generation will help enable more widespread use of wind energy. Yaw error reduces the efficiency of turbines as well as lowers the reliability of key components in turbines. Light detection and ranging (LIDAR) devices can correct the yaw error; however, they are expensive, and there is a trade‐off between their costs and benefits. In this study, a stochastic discrete‐event simulation was developed that models the operation of a wind farm. We maximize the net present value (NPV) changes associated with using LIDAR devices in a wind farm and determine the optimum number of LIDAR devices and their associated turbine stay time as a function of number of turbines in the wind farm for specific turbine sizes. The outcome of this work will help wind farm owners and operators make informed decisions about purchasing LIDAR devices for their wind farms.     

Societal acceptance of wind farms: Analysis of four common themes across Australian case studies

Australia's renewable energy target (RET) seeks to provide 20 per cent of Australia's electricity generation from renewable energy sources by 2020. As wind power is relatively advanced, it was anticipated that wind power will contribute a major component of the early target. However, high levels of societal resistance to wind farms, combined with new regulatory policies, indicate the RET may not be dominated by wind power. This research involved an examination of seven case studies around wind farm deployment. Qualitative interviews were the primary data for the case studies and analysed using methods informed by grounded theory. Despite the diversity of stakeholder views, the qualitative analysis identified strong community support for wind farms but four common themes emerged that influence this societal acceptance of wind farms in Australia: trust, distributional justice, procedural justice and place attachment. Without addressing these factors through integration into policy development and engagement approaches, wind energy is unlikely to provide the early and majority of new renewable energy. Similar international experiences are incorporated in the discussion of the Australian wind industry's societal acceptance.     

An over painted oriental arts: Evaluation of the development of the Chinese renewable energy market using the wind power market as a model

China is now the largest CO₂ polluter in the world. However, the renewable energy policies in China are controversial and one can easily draw the wrong conclusions that Chinese renewable energy development has taken off from a surface assessment of the policies. By investigating and summarizing the first-hand experiences of participation in the Chinese renewable market (mainly wind farm development) in the past five years, this paper provides another dimension of policy analysis and independent review of the current issues facing the market. An investigation of policy changes and consequences clearly demonstrates the transformation of the Chinese renewable market. The domestic manufacturing quality and unprofessional design of wind farms made most developers’ financial returns unrealistic in the wind market. Despite the difficulties and inconsistency in the system, China is tackling environmental issues seriously and heading in the right direction. With centrally controlled management, the Chinese strategies do not have to be justified financially. It is envisioned by the authors that re-organizing over 70 existing Chinese wind turbine manufacturers is unavoidable. Establishment of an internal renewable market, such as Renewable Obligation Certificate (ROC) system in the UK whose effectiveness is another subject of debate, would be an effective means by which the Chinese government in their post-2012 strategy could make the wind market more financially viable.     

Identifying the factors affecting the willingness to pay for fuel-efficient vehicles in Turkey: A case of hybrids

This paper aims to determine the factors that have an impact on the consumers’ willingness to pay a premium for hybrid automobiles in Turkey. A web-based random survey was conducted in different regions of Turkey. A questionnaire was administered to 1983 participants in January–March of 2009. The questionnaire was prepared by taking the issues raised in various sources into account. An ordered Probit model was used to meet the objective. Results show that variables such as income, gender, education, concerns about global warming, number of automobiles, importance of automobile performance, risk preference, attitude toward the alternative energy sources have an impact on the consumers’ willingness to pay a premium for hybrids. Findings suggest that consumers who have high income, higher educational level, and concerns about the global warming are more likely to pay a premium for hybrids. This study is expected to make important contributions to the current literature related to the consumers’ willingness to pay for hybrids by providing a research study from a developing country’s perspective. Results of this study also make important contributions to the policy and decision makers, environmental groups and automotive industry.     

Upper Midwestern U.S. consumers and ethanol: Knowledge, beliefs and consumption

This study uses multivariate statistical methods to explore the beliefs of upper Midwestern U.S. residents about global climate change, and possible consumer responses to determine their willingness to pay more for cellulosic ethanol from multiple feedstocks. A mail survey was sent to residents of Michigan, Minnesota, and Wisconsin to determine baseline knowledge, attitudes and beliefs on several aspects of these issues, with a focus on the emerging market for cellulosic ethanol. First, survey responses were compiled and principal components analysis was used to reduce the dimensionality of the data. This resulted in seven factors and a theoretical framework to help understand consumers’ beliefs about climate change and possible energy policy responses. Second, these results were combined with insights from previous studies that were used as input for further research hypotheses and multivariate analyses. The factor scores from principal components analysis along with the some of the key control variables (i.e., gender, income, and rural/urban) served as independent variables in three revised multiple regression models of consumer’s willingness to pay (WTP) their fair share of any additional cost of cellulosic ethanol, as reported in an earlier study. Four explanatory variables were found to be significant determinants of WTP in every model: environment, energy consumption, and climate change; concerns about climate change impacts; inability to stop climate change; and gasoline prices and consumption. These results suggest strong public support and consumer WTP for cellulosic ethanol production in the region.     

Development of a viability assessment model for hydrogen production from dedicated offshore wind farms

Dedicated offshore wind farms for hydrogen production are a promising option to unlock the full potential of offshore wind energy, attain decarbonisation and energy security targets in electricity and other sectors, and cope with grid expansion constraints. Current knowledge on these systems is limited, particularly the economic aspects. Therefore, a new, integrated and analytical model for viability assessment of hydrogen production from dedicated offshore wind farms is developed in this paper. This includes the formulae for calculating wind power output, electrolysis plant size, and hydrogen production from time-varying wind speed. All the costs are projected to a specified time using both Discounted Payback (DPB) and Net Present Value (NPV) to consider the value of capital over time. A case study considers a hypothetical wind farm of 101.3 MW situated in a potential offshore wind development pipeline off the East Coast of Ireland. All the costs of the wind farm and the electrolysis plant are for 2030, based on reference costs in the literature. Proton exchange membrane electrolysers and underground storage of hydrogen are used. The analysis shows that the DPB and NPV flows for several scenarios of storage are in good agreement and that the viability model performs well. The offshore wind farm – hydrogen production system is found to be profitable in 2030 at a hydrogen price of €5/kg and underground storage capacities ranging from 2 days to 45 days of hydrogen production. The model is helpful for rapid assessment or optimisation of both economics and feasibility of dedicated offshore wind farm – hydrogen production systems.     

Change in public attitudes towards a Cornish wind farm: Implications for planning

While independently conducted polls suggest significant public support for wind energy, there are often objections to particular wind farm developments from the local population which can result in planning permission being declined and a restriction in the ability to meet renewable energy and greenhouse gas reduction targets. The aim of the study was to determine whether the pre-construction opinions held by communities local to a wind farm change after an extended period following commissioning. Residents of St. Newlyn East, Cornwall, England, were asked to recall their opinions of Carland Cross wind farm in 1991 and 2006. Statistically significant changes in opinion were observed for attitudes regarding the wind farm's visual attractiveness and the importance of the energy security it provides. This study continues by exploring potential reasons for this in the context of recent literature on public attitudes towards renewable energy. The findings of this study support the proposals in the 2007 UK White Paper, Planning for a Sustainable Future, for community engagement early in the project process and for the requirement of infrastructure to be debated at the national level.     

Wind turbine availability: Should it be time or energy based? – A case study in Ireland

This paper describes a method for quantifying wind farm availability using two different approaches and comparing the results. Wind turbine suppliers regularly guarantee turbine availability in terms of time. A typical value of 97% is generally taken as the industry standard. This paper shows that this guarantee can potentially under-compensate the wind farm operator for losses sustained depending on when the period of non-availability occurs. Here we present an alternative method to quantify wind farm availability based on energy, which relates the energy losses in an Irish wind farm in 2007 to periods of turbine non-availability. It is shown in this analysis completed at this operational wind farm that while the technical non-availability as a percentage of time is 3%, the percentage of energy lost during downtimes is actually 11%. Based on the financial analysis above, the financial losses are significant. To answer the question should wind turbine availability be time or energy based, this paper shows that it can be advantageous for wind turbine owners to have energy-based calculations as long as the developers have sufficient monitoring of not only wind speed but also SCADA data.