一种新的频繁子图挖掘算法

传统Aprior频繁子图挖掘算法中存在大量冗余子图.针对该问题,提出一种新的频繁子图挖掘算法(GAI).介绍一种三层MADI索引结构,用于存储图集的信息,以减少图集的扫描次数,通过扩展ETree树构造频繁子图,并用表来存储候选子图,避免扩展过程中冗余图的产生以及对整个数据库的扫描,从而简化支持度的计算,提高图/子图同构...     

Lindex: a lattice-based index for graph databases

Subgraph querying has wide applications in various fields such as cheminformatics and bioinformatics. Given a query graph, q, a subgraph-querying algorithm retrieves all graphs, D(q), which have q as a subgraph, from a graph database, D. Subgraph querying is costly because it uses subgraph isomorphism tests, which are NP-complete. Graph indices are commonly used to improve the performance of subgraph querying in graph databases. Subgraph-querying algorithms first construct a candidate answer set by filtering out a set of false answers and then verify each candidate graph using subgraph isomorphism tests. To build graph indices, various kinds of substructure (subgraph, subtree, or path) features have been proposed with the goal of maximizing the filtering rate. Each of them works with a specifically designed index structure, for example, discriminative and frequent subgraph features work with gIndex, δ-TCFG features work with FG-index, etc. We propose Lindex, a graph index, which indexes subgraphs contained in database graphs. Nodes in Lindex represent key-value pairs where the key is a subgraph in a database and the value is a list of database graphs containing the key. We propose two heuristics that are used in the construction of Lindex that allows us to determine answers to subgraph queries conducting less subgraph isomorphism tests. Consequently, Lindex improves subgraph-querying efficiency. In addition, Lindex is compatible with any choice of features. Empirically, we demonstrate that Lindex used in conjunction with subgraph indexing features proposed in previous works outperforms other specifically designed index structures. As a novel index structure, Lindex (1) is effective in filtering false graphs (2) provides fast index lookups, (3) is fast with respect to index construction and maintenance, and (4) can be constructed using any set of substructure index features. These four properties result in a fast and scalable subgraph-querying infrastructure. We substantiate the benefits of Lindex and its disk-resident variation Lindex+ theoretically and empirically.     

ESPM--频繁子树挖掘算法

随着互联网的发展,频繁模式的挖掘由频繁项集扩展到结构化数据：树和图．在这些结构上的挖掘工作被应用于更为复杂的领域,比如生物信息学、网络日志和XML文档．提出了一个新颖的算法：ESPM,以挖掘有序标号树中的频繁子树．不同于以往的工作,把树同构的判断工作放到了算法的晚期,从而减少了整个挖掘过程的时间开销．人工数据集和真实数据集上的实验都证明ESPM相较于其他算法的优越性．还提出了一些可能的改进．     

Repeated patterns in genetic programming

Evolved genetic programming trees contain many repeated code fragments. Size fair crossover limits bloat in automatic programming, preventing the evolution of recurring motifs. We examine these complex properties in detail using depth vs. size Catalan binary tree shape plots, subgraph and subtree matching, information entropy, sensitivity analysis, syntactic and semantic fitness correlations. Programs evolve in a self-similar fashion, akin to fractal random trees, with diffuse introns. Data mining frequent patterns reveals that as software is progressively improved a large proportion of it is exactly repeated subtrees as well as exactly repeated subgraphs. We relate this emergent phenomenon to building blocks in GP and suggest GP works by jumbling subtrees which already have high fitness on the whole problem to give incremental improvements and create complete solutions with multiple identical components of different importance.     

Frequent subgraph mining in outerplanar graphs

In recent years there has been an increased interest in frequent pattern discovery in large databases of graph structured objects. While the frequent connected subgraph mining problem for tree datasets can be solved in incremental polynomial time, it becomes intractable for arbitrary graph databases. Existing approaches have therefore resorted to various heuristic strategies and restrictions of the search space, but have not identified a practically relevant tractable graph class beyond trees. In this paper, we consider the class of outerplanar graphs, a strict generalization of trees, develop a frequent subgraph mining algorithm for outerplanar graphs, and show that it works in incremental polynomial time for the practically relevant subclass of well-behaved outerplanar graphs, i.e., which have only polynomially many simple cycles. We evaluate the algorithm empirically on chemo- and bioinformatics applications.     

Efficient frequent connected subgraph mining in graphs of bounded tree-width

The frequent connected subgraph mining problem, i.e., the problem of listing all connected graphs that are subgraph isomorphic to at least a certain number of transaction graphs of a database, cannot be solved in output polynomial time in the general case. If, however, the transaction graphs are restricted to forests then the problem becomes tractable. In this paper we generalize the positive result on forests to graphs of bounded tree-width. In particular, we show that for this class of transaction graphs, frequent connected subgraphs can be listed in incremental polynomial time. Since subgraph isomorphism remains NP-complete for bounded tree-width graphs, the positive complexity result of this paper shows that efficient frequent pattern mining is possible even for computationally hard pattern matching operators.     

A new algorithm for error-tolerant subgraph isomorphism detection

We propose a new algorithm for error-correcting subgraph isomorphism detection from a set of model graphs to an unknown input graph. The algorithm is based on a compact representation of the model graphs. This representation is derived from the set of model graphs in an off-line preprocessing step. The main advantage of the proposed representation is that common subgraphs of different model graphs are represented only once. Therefore, at run time, given an unknown input graph, the computational effort of matching the common subgraphs for each model graph onto the input graph is done only once. Consequently, the new algorithm is only sublinearly dependent on the number of model graphs. Furthermore, the new algorithm can be combined with a future cost estimation method that greatly improves its run-time performance     

NODAR: mining globally distributed substructures from a single labeled graph

Data mining in structured and semi-structured data focuses on frequent data values. However, in graph data mining, the focus is on common specific topologies. Graph mining, although its ubiquity, is a difficult task since it requires subgraph isomorphism which is known to be NP-complete. In order to effectively prune the search space and thereby save computational time, a graph mining algorithm requires that the support measure of a pattern to be no greater than that of its subpatterns. This property of the support measure is referred to in the literature as the down-closure, anti-monotonicity or admissibility. Unfortunately, when mining a single labeled graph, simply counting the occurrences of a graph pattern may not have the down-closure property. For this, most existing approaches mine frequent substructures in a set of labeled graphs (called also the transactional setting) and few efforts have been devoted to mining frequent globally distributed substructures in a single labeled graph. In this paper, we propose a graph mining algorithm, called NODAR(Non-Overlapping embeDding based grAph mineR), for computing common and globally distributed substructures in a single labeled graph. NODAR adopts the Depth-First Search (DFS) strategy and is based on the SMNOES (Size of Maximum Non Overlapping Embedding Set) as support measure. The core idea of NODAR is to automatically extract frequent subpatterns; and thus without frequency computation thanks to the down-closure property of SMNOES. By adopting this strategy in the computation of frequent substructures, NODAR reduces the number of subgraph isomorphism tests needed to compute pattern frequencies. Experimental results on monograph and transactional graph databases; and comparison with well-known probabilistic and exact algorithms; prove the efficacy of NODAR.     

Effective feature construction by maximum common subgraph sampling

The standard approach to feature construction and predictive learning in molecular datasets is to employ computationally expensive graph mining techniques and to bias the feature search exploration using frequency or correlation measures. These features are then typically employed in predictive models that can be constructed using, for example, SVMs or decision trees. We take a different approach: rather than mining for all optimal local patterns, we extract features from the set of pairwise maximum common subgraphs. The maximum common subgraphs are computed under the block-and-bridge-preserving subgraph isomorphism from the outerplanar examples in polynomial time. We empirically observe a significant increase in predictive performance when using maximum common subgraph features instead of correlated local patterns on 60 benchmark datasets from NCI. Moreover, we show that when we randomly sample the pairs of graphs from which to extract the maximum common subgraphs, we obtain a smaller set of features that still allows the same predictive performance as methods that exhaustively enumerate all possible patterns. The sampling strategy turns out to be a very good compromise between a slight decrease in predictive performance (although still remaining comparable with state-of-the-art methods) and a significant runtime reduction (two orders of magnitude on a popular medium size chemoinformatics dataset). This suggests that maximum common subgraphs are interesting and meaningful features.     

Finding Largest Subtrees and Smallest Supertrees

As trees are used in a wide variety of application areas, the comparison of trees arises in many guises. Here we consider two generalizations of classical tree pattern matching, which consists of determining if one tree is isomorphic to a subgraph of another. For the embedding problems of subgraph isomorphism and topological embedding, we present algorithms for determining a largest tree embeddable in two trees T and T' (or a largest subtree) and a smallest tree in which each of T and T' can be embedded (or a smallest supertree). Both subtrees and supertrees can be used in a variety of different applications. For example, when each of the two trees contains partial information about a data set, such as the evolution of a set of species, the subtree or supertree corresponds to a structuring of the data in a manner consistent with both original trees. The size of a subtree or supertree of two trees can also be used to measure the similarity between two arrangements of data, whether images, documents, or RNA secondary structures. In this paper we present a general paradigm for sequential and parallel subtree and supertree algorithms for subgraph isomorphism and topological embedding. Our sequential algorithms run in time O(n ^2.5 log n) and our parallel algorithms in time O(log ³ n) on a randomized crew pram using a polynomial number of processors. In addition, we produce better algorithms for these problems when the underlying trees are ordered, that is, when the children of each node have a left-to-right ordering associated with them. In particular, we obtain O(n ² ) -time sequential algorithms and O(log ³ n) -time deterministic parallel algorithms on crew prams for both embeddings. Received July 17, 1995; revised May 25, 1996, and December 10, 1996.     

不确定图间α-β子图同构匹配算法

子图查询返回图数据集合中所有包含查询图的数据图。在查询图和数据图同时为不确定性图的前提下,提出了不确定图间的期望子图同构定义和α-β子图同构匹配定义。不确定图间的期望子图同构是确定图上子图同构在概率图模型上的直接推广,不确定图间α-β子图同构利用两个限制阈值来衡量查询图和数据图间的匹配质量。文章详细阐述了α-β子图同构匹配的语义特点,分析了其和期望子图同构的联系和差别,设计实现α-β子图同构匹配判定算法。     

An efficient algorithm for discovering frequent subgraphs

Over the years, frequent itemset discovery algorithms have been used to find interesting patterns in various application areas. However, as data mining techniques are being increasingly applied to nontraditional domains, existing frequent pattern discovery approaches cannot be used. This is because the transaction framework that is assumed by these algorithms cannot be used to effectively model the data sets in these domains. An alternate way of modeling the objects in these data sets is to represent them using graphs. Within that model, one way of formulating the frequent pattern discovery problem is that of discovering subgraphs that occur frequently over the entire set of graphs. We present a computationally efficient algorithm, called FSG, for finding all frequent subgraphs in large graph data sets. We experimentally evaluate the performance of FSG using a variety of real and synthetic data sets. Our results show that despite the underlying complexity associated with frequent subgraph discovery, FSG is effective in finding all frequently occurring subgraphs in data sets containing more than 200,000 graph transactions and scales linearly with respect to the size of the data set.     

Subsea: an efficient heuristic algorithm for subgraph isomorphism

We present a novel approach to the problem of finding all subgraphs and induced subgraphs of a (target) graph which are isomorphic to another (pattern) graph. To attain efficiency we use a special representation of the pattern graph. We also combine our search algorithm with some known bisection algorithms. Experimental comparison with other algorithms was performed on several types of graphs. The comparison results suggest that the approach provided here is most effective when all instances of a subgraph need to be found.     

GC-BES:一种新的基于嵌入集的图分类方法

已提出很多图分类方法。这些方法在挖掘频繁子图时,只考虑了子图的结构信息,没有考虑子图的嵌入信息。实际上,有些频繁子图挖掘算法在计算子图的支持度时,可以获得嵌入信息。在L-CCAM子图编码的基础上,提出了一种基于嵌入集的图分类方法。该方法采用基于类别信息的特征子图选择策略,充分利用嵌入集,在频繁子图挖掘过程中直接选择特征子图。通过实验表明,该方法是有效的、可行的。     

Mining frequent subgraphs from tremendous amount of small graphs using MapReduce

Frequent subgraph mining from a tremendous amount of small graphs is a primitive operation for many data mining applications. Existing approaches mainly focus on centralized systems and suffer from the scalability issue. Consider the increasing volume of graph data and mining frequent subgraphs is a memory-intensive task, it is difficult to tackle this problem on a centralized machine efficiently. In this paper, we therefore propose an efficient and scalable solution, called MRFSE, using MapReduce. MRFSE adopts the breadth-first search strategy to iteratively extract frequent subgraphs, i.e., all frequent subgraphs with \(i+1\) edges are generated based on frequent subgraphs with i edges at the ith iteration. In our design, existing frequent subgraph mining techniques in centralized systems can be easily extended and integrated. More importantly, new frequent subgraphs are generated without performing any isomorphism test which is costly and imperative in existing frequent subgraph mining techniques. Besides, various optimization techniques are proposed to further reduce the communication and I/O cost. Extensive experiments conducted on our in-house clusters demonstrate the superiority of our proposed solution in terms of both scalability and efficiency.     

挖掘不确定频繁子图的改进算法的研究

鉴于图结构能简单方便地描绘复杂的数据以及实际应用中图数据的获得具有不确定性,不确定频繁子图挖掘算法得到广泛的研究。目前一个典型的图挖掘算法是MUSE,但MUSE算法存在期望支持度计算消耗大、时间效率不够高等问题。针对此问题提出了一种基于划分思想混合搜索策略的不确定子图挖掘算法EDFS,它用改进过的GSpan算法进行不确定的子图数据预处理,用裁剪子图模式的搜索空间裁剪不确定子图数据,用基于划分思想的混合策略进行频繁子图的挖掘。子图同构与边存在概率的实验结果证明了EDFS算法能更高效地挖掘出不确定数据频繁子图。     

最大频繁子图挖掘算法研究

随着图的广泛应用,图的规模不断扩大,因此提高频繁子图挖掘效率势在必行。本文针对频繁子图挖掘所产生的庞大的结果集,提出了一个最大频繁子图挖掘算法MFME,从而极大地减少了结果集的数量。MFME使用了映射的思想将图集中的边映射到边表中并在此表上进行子图挖掘,有效地提高了算法的效率。实验结果表明,MFME的效率较经典算法SPIN有明显提高。     

加权最大频繁子图挖掘算法的研究

如何从大量的图中挖掘出令人感兴趣的子图模式已经成为数据挖掘领域研究的热点之一。传统的频繁子图挖掘方法对满足最小支持度阈值的子图同等对待,但在真实数据库中不同的子图往往具有不同的重要程度。为解决上述问题,提出了一种深度优先的挖掘加权最大频繁子图的新算法。首先给出了一种新的用于计算图的邻接矩阵规范编码的结点排序策略,大大降低了求图规范编码的复杂度,并可以加速子图规范编码匹配的速度。其次,给出了加权最大频繁子图的定义,不仅可以找出较为重要的最大频繁子图,而且可以使挖掘结果同样具有反单调性,从而可加速剪枝。实验结果表明,提出的算法不仅可以有效地减少挖掘结果的数量,而且具有较高的效率。     

Finding reliable subgraphs from large probabilistic graphs

Reliable subgraphs can be used, for example, to find and rank nontrivial links between given vertices, to concisely visualize large graphs, or to reduce the size of input for computationally demanding graph algorithms. We propose two new heuristics for solving the most reliable subgraph extraction problem on large, undirected probabilistic graphs. Such a problem is specified by a probabilistic graph G subject to random edge failures, a set of terminal vertices, and an integer K. The objective is to remove K edges from G such that the probability of connecting the terminals in the remaining subgraph is maximized. We provide some technical details and a rough analysis of the proposed algorithms. The practical performance of the methods is evaluated on real probabilistic graphs from the biological domain. The results indicate that the methods scale much better to large input graphs, both computationally and in terms of the quality of the result.     

Querying massive graph data: A compress and search approach

Querying graph data is a fundamental problem that witnesses an increasing interest especially for massive graph databases which come as a promising alternative to relational databases for big data modeling. In this paper, we study the problem of subgraph isomorphism search which consists to enumerate the embedding of a query graph in a data graph. The most known solutions of this NP-complete problem are backtracking-based and result in a high computational cost when we deal with massive graph databases. We address this problem and its challenges via graph compression with modular decomposition. In our approach, subgraph isomorphism search is performed on compressed graphs without decompressing them yielding substantial reduction of the search space and consequently a significant saving in processing time as well as in storage space for the graphs. We evaluated our algorithms on nine real-word datasets. The experimental results show that our approach is efficient and scalable.