Tailoring Fuels for the New Millennium

This introductory paper presents the perspective of an oil company on automotive fuels development and vehicle emissions. Studies are described of fuel effects on aftertreatment catalyst efficiencies for both modern gasoline and diesel vehicles. Shell has consistently responded to the fuel requirements of both customers and new vehicle technologies over the past few decades and will continue to do so. As society moves to more sustainable energy sources, the future of automotive mobility is discussed; new, alternative vehicles technologies are expected to emerge, which may require completely new fuels, and this could lead to a reshaping of our fuels (energy) business.     

Biodiesel CO2 emissions: A comparison with the main fuels in the Brazilian market

The use of biodiesel is increasing as an attractive fuel due to the depleting fossil fuel resources and environmental degradation. This paper presents results of an investigation on the potentials of biodiesel as an alternative fuel and main substitute of diesel oil, comparing the CO₂ emissions of the main fuels in the Brazilian market with those of biodiesel, in pure form or blended in different proportions with diesel oil (2%, 5%, and 20%, called B2, B5, and B20, respectively). The results of the study are shown in ton CO₂ per m³ and ton CO₂ per year of fuel. The fuels were analyzed considering their chemical composition, stoichiometric combustion parameters and mean consumption for a single vehicle. The fuels studied were: gasoline, diesel oil, anhydrous ethyl alcohol (anhydrous ethanol), and biodiesel from used frying oil and from soybean oil. For the case of biodiesel, its complete life cycle and the closed carbon cycle (photosynthesis) were considered. With data provided by the Brazilian Association of Automotive Vehicle Manufacturers (ANFAVEA) for the number of vehicles produced in Brazil, the emissions of CO₂ for the national fleet in 2007 were obtained per type of fuel. With data provided by the Brazilian Department of Transit (DENATRAN) concerning the number of diesel vehicles in the last five years in Brazil, the total CO₂ emissions and the percentage that they would decrease in the case of use of pure biodiesel, B100, or several mixtures, B2, B5 and B20, were calculated. Estimates of CO₂ emissions for a future scenario considering the mixtures B5 and B20 are also included in this article.     

Fahrzeugantrieb mit PEM-Brennstoffzelle

In the areas of traffic and vehicle power units, high energy consumption an resource depletion have led during the past twenty years to improvements to vehicles with Diesel and Otto enigines, improved traffic control, and the development and introduction of alternative power units. One alternative is the fuel cell motor. The advantages of a fuel cell vehicle lie in reduced or zero emission. The electrical efficiency of the fuel cell is very high and not subject to the constraints of the Carnot process. Owing to their technical properties, such as their working temperature range, CO₂ compatibility, solid electrolyte in the form of a film, PEM fuel cells appear most suitable for use in vehicles. They can be operated fairly straightforwardly so that the periphery remains well controllable on construction of a complete system. If an alternative power unit such as the fuel cell is to acquire customer acceptance beyond initial niche applications then not only better primary energy consumption and significantly better emmision behavior than conventional drives are required. Further technical an economic demand will have to be meet in order satisfy sutomer expectations.     

An optimization framework for cost effective design of refueling station infrastructure for alternative fuel vehicles

Historically, gasoline and diesel fuels have been used for transportation, but the possible decline of oil supplies in the future is forcing nations to consider alternative fuels. Most technically and economically feasible alternative fuels have a lower energy density than gasoline, which results in a shorter range for these vehicles. This necessitates a greater need for convenient access to refueling facilities for alternative fuel vehicles. Since infrastructure development is expensive, there is a need to direct investments towards the establishment of refueling facilities in areas which result in maximum impact. This can be addressed by locating facilities at sites which service as many vehicles as possible. This work deals with the use of mathematical programming for determining the best locations for establishing alternative transportation fuel stations. The objective was to site the refueling stations at locations which maximize the number of vehicles served, while staying within budget constraints. The model used here is a modified form of the flow interception facility location model. For the case study we used the transportation network of Alexandria, Virginia, as a test bed for our model. Origin-destination travel demand data for this city is simulated through a transportation simulator to determine the routes taken by individual vehicles. The results are then compared with the service level offered by conventional gasoline refueling stations already located in the city. This work integrates the use of transportation modeling with mathematical programming for the solution of a complex large-scale problem on a real-life transportation network.     

Hydrogen Automobile Heads Toward Series Production HydroGen3 Puts Fuel Cells on the Road

General Motor's concept vehicle HydroGen3, based on the Opel Zafira production model, represents the third generation of fuel cell concept vehicles. Groundbreaking new technical and engineering improvements have been reached, e.g. the integration of the latest generation of fuel cell stacks. The fleet demonstrations will start this year. Given the current stage of development at GM/Opel, hydrogen‐powered automobiles could be mass‐produced in about eight years. An efficient fuel cell technology suitable for everyday use is the essential pre‐condition for the development of an alternative propulsion system, which would replace the classic crude oil‐based fuels for the vehicles of the future. However, this technology alone is not sufficient to establish fuel cell automobiles as viable substitutes for conventional vehicles with gasoline and diesel engines. Factors such as purchase price, safety, engine performance and driving dynamics also play a decisive role for the customer. General Motors (GM) has therefore invested more than one billion dollars to develop an automobile incorporating state‐of‐the‐art fuel cell technology with vehicle characteristics suited to the marketplace. The hydrogen concept vehicle HydroGen3 (Figure 1) marks the newest and most comprehensive advance made by GM/Opel on the road to fuel cell vehicle market readiness. Test drives conducted by an international group of expert journalists at the Grand‐Prix course in Monte Carlo in December 2002 confirmed that the HydroGen3 has brought mass production of hydrogen‐fuelled automobiles within reach.     

Vehicle gas producers

With ever-increasing prices for petroleum-derived liquid fuels, especially gasoline, it is appropriate to consider alternatives such as fuel gases. The use of solid fuel gas producers on individual vehicles began about 1921 and was tested and used in Western Europe up to the end of World War II. Road rallies held in France, Germany, and internationally in the 1930's, established the reliability of both producers and vehicles. In this communication the results of road rallies, war games and routine use of gas producers on vehicles is reviewed. Results from these and other tests indicate that economic feasibility is possible, at least in some locations even today. The types of producers are described as well as their performance, special problems and the importance of fuel properties. Some economic comparisons are given for pre-World War II conditions. Suggestions are made for possible future development of vehicle gas producers. In view of the long lead times required for large scale synthetic fuel plants, at least consideration of gas producers on vehicles seems imperative.     

Strategies for Dimensioning Two‐Wheeled Fuel Cell Hybrid Electric Vehicles Using Numerical Analysis Software

Owing to the limitation of fossil fuels and high consumption and pollution for transportation, the vehicle industry is looking for other sources of energy. A fuel cell hybrid electric vehicle (FCHEV) could be a suitable solution considering the state of the art of main components. This paper presents the simulation of powertrains for FCHEVs in order to dimension the fuel cell (FC) as primary source of energy and to investigate the power flows during both motoring and recuperative braking. For this purpose a Matlab/Simulink^® model has been built up which can be used for a wide range of applications. The results of simulation show which is the best powertrain configuration for two‐wheeled vehicles in three different cases: a bike in which the traction force is provided by both electric motor and the pedaling of the cyclist, a bike in which the traction force is provided only by an electric motor without pedaling and a motorcycle for 2 passengers. Specifically, the consumption, the state of charge (SOC) of battery and the amount of energy generated by each source of energy have been monitored. The model validation was done by comparison between the obtained results and scientific articles in the literature.     

聚甲醛二烷基醚的研究进展

高十六烷值柴油调和组分———聚甲醛二烷基醚是目前世界上公认的环保型燃油组分,本文从我国经济、社会发展方面简要介绍了发展煤基液体燃料的必要性,并对甲醇基含氧组分聚甲醛二烷基醚的国内外研究进展进行了较为详细的介绍,包括国内外合成聚甲醛二烷基醚的方法,同时介绍了聚甲醛二甲基醚的部分理化性质及热力学函数值,指出研究甲醇基车用柴油替代燃料聚甲醛二烷基醚的必要性。     

ONBOARD FUEL CONVERSION FOR HYDROGEN-FUEL-CELL-DRIVEN VEHICLES

Increasingly stringent legislation controls emissions from internal combustion engines to the point where alternative power sources for vehicles are necessary. The hydrogen fuel cell is one promising option, but the nature of the gas is such that the conversion of other fuels to hydrogen on board the vehicle is necessary.

The conversion of methanol, methane, propane, and octane to hydrogen is reviewed. A combination of oxidation and steam reforming (indirect partial oxidation) or direct partial oxidation are the most promising processes. Indirect partial oxidation involves combustion of part of the fuel to produce sufficient heat to drive the endothermic steam reforming reaction. Direct partial oxidation is favored only at high temperatures and short residence times but is highly selective. However, indirect partial oxidation is shown to be the preferred process for all fuels.

The product gases can be taken through a water–gas shift reactor, but still retain ～2% carbon monoxide, which poisons fuel-cell catalysts. Selective oxidation is the preferred route to removal of residual carbon monoxide. Low-temperature oxidation in the absence and presence of an excess of hydrogen is reviewed. Au-based catalysts show much promise, but precious metal catalysts such as Pt/zeolite have some advantages.     

Time-resolved particle emission and size distribution characteristics during dynamic engine operation conditions with ethanol-blended fuels

The effect of ethanol-blended gasoline fuels on the characteristics of time-resolved particle concentration and size distribution was investigated in a gasoline engine and in a flexible fuel vehicle. Particle concentration levels from the vehicle running on ethanol-blended gasoline were compared to those of diesel vehicles with and without diesel particulate filter (DPF). In the engine test, particle size distribution and number concentration using E0 and E10 fuels were analyzed with a differential mobility spectrometer (DMS500) at dynamic engine operation conditions. In the vehicle emission test, time-resolved particle concentrations with ethanol blending contents (E0, E10, and E85) during a new European driving cycle (NEDC) were analyzed with a golden particle measurement system (GPMS) as recommended by the particle measurement programme (PMP). As the excess air ratio is shifted to lean conditions and as the spark and intake valve opening timing are retarded, particle number levels were reduced with both E0 and E10. The particle concentration from ethanol-blended gasoline was slightly decreased regardless of engine operating conditions. From the driving test results, the total particle concentration from the spark ignition and the diesel vehicle with a DPF was decreased by two orders of magnitude compared to a non-DPF diesel vehicle. As the oxygenated component is increased, particle emissions decreased. The total particle concentration for E85 was reduced by 37% compared to E0.     

ONBOARD FUEL CONVERSION FOR HYDROGEN-FUEL-CELL-DRIVEN VEHICLES

Increasingly stringent legislation controls emissions from internal combustion engines to the point where alternative power sources for vehicles are necessary. The hydrogen fuel cell is one promising option, but the nature of the gas is such that the conversion of other fuels to hydrogen on board the vehicle is necessary.

The conversion of methanol, methane, propane, and octane to hydrogen is reviewed. A combination of oxidation and steam reforming (indirect partial oxidation) or direct partial oxidation are the most promising processes. Indirect partial oxidation involves combustion of part of the fuel to produce sufficient heat to drive the endothermic steam reforming reaction. Direct partial oxidation is favored only at high temperatures and short residence times but is highly selective. However, indirect partial oxidation is shown to be the preferred process for all fuels.

The product gases can be taken through a water-gas shift reactor, but still retain ∼2% carbon monoxide, which poisons fuel-cell catalysts. Selective oxidation is the preferred route to removal of residual carbon monoxide. Low-temperature oxidation in the absence and presence of an excess of hydrogen is reviewed. Au-based catalysts show much promise, but precious metal catalysts such as Pt/zeolite have some advantages.     

Formulation of Canola-Diesel Microemulsion Fuels and Their Selective Diesel Engine Performance

Vegetable oils have been considered as an alternative to diesel fuel due to their comparable properties and performance. However, the high viscosity of vegetable oil causes engine durability problems with long-term usage. Vegetable oil viscosity can be reduced by blending with diesel fuel in thermodynamically stable mixtures using microemulsion fuel formulation techniques. This work focuses on the formulation of microemulsion fuels comprising diesel fuel and canola oil as the oil phase with ethanol and sec-butanol as viscosity reducers as well as 1-octanol and oleyl amine as surfactant/cosurfactant. Selective tests on an instrumented diesel engine were performed for formulated microemulsion fuels and No. 2 diesel fuel for comparison. The results show that formulated microemulsion fuels have fuel properties that meet the ASTM requirements for viscosity, cloud point, and pour point for biodiesel. Even more important, they have phase stability over a wide range of temperatures (−10 to 70 °C). Although all of the microemulsion fuels showed higher fuel consumption than diesel fuel, some of the microemulsion fuels had significantly reduced CO and NO_x emissions as well as reduced particulates when compared to baseline diesel fuel. The research demonstrates the potential of these microemulsion fuels as alternative to neat diesel fuel.     

替代燃料在水泥窑协同处置系统中的应用

老河口公司现有一条4 800 t/d熟料水泥生产线,配套日处理生活垃圾220 t的协同处置垃圾生产线。现在原煤价格越来越高,为了节约水泥生产成本,老河口公司积极寻找替代燃料,以此降低生产成本。在2022年9月开始使用替代燃料（废纺）。通过数据统计,累计使用替代燃料531 t,相比于2022年1～7月标准煤耗降低3.56 kg/t,节约成本22.1万元。     

Key properties and blending strategies of hydrotreated vegetable oil as biofuel for diesel engines

Hydrotreating catalysis is becoming a promising alternative to transesterification for the production of biofuels derived from vegetable oils. They have potential advantages with respect to both biodiesel fuels and petroleum-derived diesel fuels in terms of production costs, engine emissions and adaptability to current engine designs, but they have also some limitations which may restrict their capability to replace diesel fuels. Those fuel properties considered the most restrictive ones were measured on different blends of HVO (selected among the variety of names given to these fuels) with a winter ultra low sulfur diesel fuel (in 10, 20, 25, 30, 35, 40, 45, 50, 55, and 75 vol.%) in order to propose some blending strategies to optimize engine performance and emissions, to protect the engine components and to keep the vehicle operability. The results obtained show that the main restrictions are imposed by lubricity and cetane number, and, in case of cold regions, also by cold flow properties. A compromise between lubricity and derived cetane number would lead to a recommendation for low or medium HVO concentrations, and blends with concentrations above 50% would not be recommended. Density and viscosity would not impose direct blending restrictions, although the reductions in density could provide some economic savings and some flexibility to refineries. The loss of heating value per unit volume (and consequently the expected increase in fuel consumption) would be lower than 3% in blends up to 50% in volume. Finally, the sooting tendency of the blends is sharply reduced, indicating lower engine PM emissions and reduced need for regeneration of diesel particulate filters.     

电动车的大规模发展依然任重道远

随着全球气候变暖和生态环境恶化等问题加剧,近几年全球电动车产业得到了快速发展。随之而来的"石油消费峰值论""石油时代终结论"甚嚣尘上。发展电动车的本质是一次能源转型,即从化石能源的直接使用转向使用清洁能源。但是,电动车的发展,目前除自身技术特别是电池的续航里程、充电速度、电池回收等短期难以实现重大突破之外,关键是受到资源约束(清洁能源资源和锂、钴等电池原料资源),资源条件决定了电动车的发展速度。即使电动车将来大规模普及,也只能实现对汽油车的替代,重型机械、车辆、船舶、飞机等是很难替代的,未来中长期电机将与内燃机驱动并存,各类能源将长期共存发展,电动车的大规模发展依然任重道远。     

The Future of Vehicle Propulsion – Combustion Engines and Alternatives

Increasing shortage on energy resources as well as future emission legislation development increase the pressure to develop more efficient, environmentally friendly propulsion systems for vehicles. This requires a further development of current diesel and gasoline engines as well as a careful look to alternatives like fuel cell systems or hybrid propulsion systems. This paper gives a survey about the current status and future developments of internal combustion engines (ICE), as well as some alternatives. A special focus will be on the impact on catalyst development which is in the topic of this conference. The ICE will dominate for vehicle propulsion in the next decades, but will undergo further development. In particular the shift to diesel engines and lean, turbocharged SI-engines will require a continuous development of aftertreatment systems, primarily for Particulates and NO _x . From the alternative fuels natural gas will be the first to play a significant role. The fuel cell will probably have the chance to enter the market only as an auxiliary power unit.     

走近车用工程塑料

汽车的轻量化就是在保证汽车的强度和安全性能的前提下,尽可能地降低汽车的整备质量,从而提高汽车的动力性,减少燃料消耗,降低排气污染。工程塑料凸显优势,车用塑料进入快速发展期。介绍了尼龙、聚酯、聚甲醛、聚碳酸酯和聚苯醚等性能特点、应用范围以及市场前景。     

Aviation fuel JP-5 and biodiesel on a diesel engine

Naval aviation turbine fuel, JP-5, has been accepted as alternative to JP-8 in the frame of the Single Fuel Policy. This has resulted in some ongoing research on JP-5 fuel for its application as a naval single fuel. The necessity to cope with the environmental problems identified in the process of implementing the Single Fuel Policy as well as the strict requirements of modern diesel engines has lead to the need of improved single fuel quality. The development of biomass derived substitutes for diesel, such as biodiesel, is a possible attractive solution. The present paper is an effort to evaluate JP-5 along with diesel and biodiesel for use in a diesel engine. These fuels were used alone and in various mixture fractions in a single cylinder stationary diesel engine in order to evaluate their performance under defined operating conditions of the engine. JP-5 reduced both the NOx and particulate matter emissions as compared to the reference fuel case. Biodiesel significantly lowered particulate emissions, but slightly increased NOx emissions and fuel consumption. Fuel sulfur content has an undesired effect on smoke opacity. Biodiesel increased the fuel consumption when added to petroleum fuels and the increase was larger at high engine loads. Diesel and JP-5 showed similar fuel consumption, with diesel consumption increasing at high engine loads. Ternary blends showed similar behavior. The blends with lower biodiesel content showed lower volumetric fuel consumption.     

Emissions of Particulate Trace Elements,Metals and Organic Species from Gasoline,Diesel, and Biodiesel Passenger Vehicles and Their Relation to Oxidative Potential

Three light-duty passenger vehicles were tested in five configurations in a chassis dynamometer study to determine the chemical and oxidative potential of the particulate exhaust emissions. The first vehicle was a diesel Honda with a three-stage oxidation system. Its main catalyst was replaced with a diesel particulate filter (DPF) and tested as a second configuration. The second vehicle was a gasoline-fuelled Toyota Corolla with a three-way catalytic converter. The last vehicle was an older Volkswagen Golf, tested using petro-diesel in its original configuration, and biodiesel with an oxidation catalyst as an alternative configuration. Particulate matter (PM) was collected on filters and subsequently analyzed using various chemical and toxicological assays. The production of reactive oxygen species (ROS), quantified by the dithiothreitol (DTT) and macrophage-ROS assays, was used to measure the PM-induced oxidative potential. The results showed that the Golf vehicle in both configurations had the highest emissions of organic species (PAHs, hopanes, steranes, and organic acids). The DPF-equipped diesel Accord car emitted PM with the lowest amounts of organic species and the lowest oxidative potential. Correlation analyses showed that soluble Fe is strongly associated with particulate ROS activity (R = 0.99), while PAHs and hopanes were highly associated with DTT consumption rates (R = 0.94 and 0.91, respectively). In particular, tracers of lube oil emissions, namely Zn, P, Ca, and hopanes, were strongly correlated with distance-based DTT consumption rates (R = 0.96, 0.92, 0.83, and 0.91, respectively), suggesting that incomplete combustion of lube oil might be important driving factors of the overall PM-induced oxidative stress.     

替代燃料的现状与发展趋势（下）

随着化石能源的不断消耗和对环境影响的加剧,发展可替代燃料已成必然趋势。通过分析目前的燃料情况,列举了可能的替代燃料的种类并进行了比较,在此基础上重点分析了我国替代能源的发展现状,并提出了相应的对策和建议。