Control of a High Temperature Supercritical Pressure Light Water Cooled and Moderated Reactor with Water Rods

The plant system of a supercritical pressure light water reactor (SCR) is once-through direct cycle. The whole coolant from the feedwater pumps is driven to the turbines. The core flow rate is less than 1/7 of that of a boiling water reactor. In the present design of the high temperature thermal reactor (SCLWR-H), the fuel assemblies contain many water rods in which the coolant flows downward. The stepwise responses of the SCLWR-H are analyzed against perturbations without a control system. Based on these analyses, a control system of the SCLWR-H is designed. The pressure is controlled by the turbine control valves. The main steam temperature is controlled by the feedwater pumps. The reactor power is controlled by the control rods. The control parameters are optimized by the test calculations to satisfy the criteria of both fast convergence and stability. The reactor is controlled stably with the designed control systems against various perturbations, such as setpoint change of the pressure, the main steam temperature and the core power, decrease in the feedwater temperature, and decrease in the feedwater flow rate.     

The design of 2300 MW(e) twin high temperature gas-cooled reactors for the philadelphia electric company

The basic design features of a 2300 MW(e) twin high temperature gas-cooled reactor (HTGR) power plant are described. The reactor core consists of vertical columns of hexagonal graphite fuel-moderator elements and graphite reflector blocks which are grouped into a cylindrical array and supported by a graphite core support structure. Reactivity control is accomplished by means of 146 control rods. The distribution of helium coolant flow through the core is controlled by variable orifice valves. Each of the six primary coolant loops is equipped with a helium circulator. The main steam/water section of each steam generator consists of a single helical tube bundle arranged in an annulus around the center duct. A core auxiliary cooling system is provided to furnish an independent means of removing reactor afterheat. The inherent safety characteristics and the design safety features of the large HTGR are discussed. Station arrangement, steam cycle and twin turbine generators, plant performance and control, containment and fuel handling, and environmental controls, are described.     

反应堆冷却剂系统流量测量试验研究与设计

华龙一号（HPR1000）设置了反应堆冷却剂泵进出口压差表用于测量反应堆冷却剂系统（RCS系统）环路流量,取消了二代改进型核电机组设置的弯管流量计。环路流量测量方式的改变直接影响RCS系统流量测量试验的实施。通过研究主泵的运行特性和系统的阻力特性,提出了基于主泵电功率测量RCS系统流量的试验方法。结合理论分析结果和工程实践经验,给出了反应堆冷却剂惰走流量试验的试验方法和验收准则。研究表明,主泵电功率法可以测量RCS系统的流量,反应堆冷却剂惰走流量可以通过主泵惰转过程的转速变化进行验证。      

Noise analysis performed at the sodium cooled power reactor KNK I for malfunction diagnosis and plant surveillance

In order to use neutron noise analysis as an effective tool for early malfunction detection it is necessary to identify the driving forces and to calculate their contributions to the power fluctuations. In this paper the influence of a considerable number of measured noise sources on neutron noise within a large frequency range (10⁻³ Hz to 10³ Hz) is investigated for the sodium cooled power reactor KNK I (thermal core, 58 MW_th).

The experimental basis for the analysis is numerous records of the following signals at various power levels: neutron noise which has been measured with an in-core fission chamber and 3 ex-core ionisation chambers; the sodium inlet temperature and the coolant flow in both primary coolant loops and the movement of the control rods. In addition signals from acoustic-, seismic- and pressure transducers and the coolant outlet temperature were collected.

The influence of the thermohydraulic- and of the control system on neutron noise has also been calculated by means of the relations for linear and multiple-input systems. Important for this analysis is the reactivity-power transfer function. Calculations of this function could be confirmed by measurements using a pseudo-random binary signal as reactivity input.

The following results were obtained from the analysis of the auto-power spectral densities of the neutron flux: Fluctuations of the coolant inlet temperature and the coolant flow are relatively small sources for neutron noise. However, reactivity adjustments resulting from the automatic control system because of the inherent instability of the reactor turned out to be an important driving force.

The influence of still unknown driving forces increased considerably with the reactor power. Since the coolant flow was proportional to the reactor power in order to keep the coolant temperature constant, this result indicates that turbulent flow must have induced stochastical movements of core components. These movements are considered to have mainly caused the unknown reactivity driving forces. Their magnitude could be determined reliably only in the frequency range, in which external feedback mechanisms through the primary coolant system were negligible. For 30 to 50 % reactor power the contribution was about 30 % (for f > 5·10⁻³ Hz) and for full power it increased to about 80 % (for f > 5·10⁻² Hz) of the measured neutron noise. For frequencies > 5 Hz the white detection noise prevails. Single peaks in this frequency region could be explained by coherence function investigations between in-core and ex-core neutron detector signals and by correlation of these signals with displacement- and pressure fluctuations.

Though the measured neutron noise could not be unambiguously related to driving forces, the combination of analytical and empirical methods makes the results also applicable for the design of surveillance techniques for other sodium cooled reactors (e.g. LMFBRs). Examples for possible applications are given.     

The Fort St. Vrain high temperature gas-cooled reactor: V. Steam system performance tests

The Fort St. Vrain primary and secondary coolant systems have given satisfactory performance during the rise to power test program with the tests being terminated at the current maximum allowable thermal reactor power of 70% of rated. Because of a regenerative heat problem in the steam generators, rated conditions of 1000°F main and hot reheat steam temperatures, predicted to occur at 25% power, were not reached until 68%. The regenerative heat problem also forced “overblowing” of the core with primary coolant helum which resulted in higher fuel temperatures than predicted, lower core primary coolant outlet temperatures and higher core primary coolant inlet temperatures. Data suggest that all parameters will be at rated conditions at 80–100% power. A small steam generator tubing leak was detected by the primary coolant moisture monitors of the plant protective system. It was located by covergas techniques and repaired by plugging the leaking feedwater and steam subheaders external to the reactor.     

The experimental breeder reactor II inherent shutdown and heat removal tests — results and analysis

A test program is being conducted to demonstrate that a power-producing liquid-metal reactor (LMR) can (1) passively remove shutdown heat by natural convection, (2) passively reduce power in response to a loss of reactor flow, and (3) passively reduce power in response to a loss of the balance-of-plant heat sink. Measurements and pretest predictions confirm that natural convection is a reliable, predictable method of shutdown heat removal and suggest that safety-related pumps or pony motors are not necessary for safe shutdown heat removal in an LMR. Measurements from tests in which reactor flow and heat rejection to the balance of plant were perturbed show that reactivity feedbacks can passively control power and temperature. Data from these tests form a basis for additional tests including a complete loss of flow without scram and a complete loss of heat sink without scram.     

熔盐堆单参数扰动瞬态特性分析

熔盐堆（MSR）作为一种新型的反应堆,其热工水力特性与其他堆型有很大差异,扰动瞬态分析有助于从根本上了解其安全特性和运行状态。为了研究MSR的运行瞬态特性,本研究以液态燃料MSR为研究对象,利用经过修改的RELAP5/ MOD4.0程序进行了稳态运行工况下的扰动瞬态分析。干扰变量包括反应性引入、一回路熔盐质量流量、二回路质量流量、空气散热器质量流量、空气散热器入口空气温度。分析了主要运行参数,如功率、堆芯进出口温度、二回路进出口温度、特征时间等。结果表明MSR在各种扰动瞬态下的最终状态都趋于稳定,而不存在严重的瞬态变化,这是对其固有稳定性特性的直观表征。根据功率和温度等变量在扰动下的变化,提出了功率和不同回路温度的控制方法。      

Experimental identification for flow distribution inside APR+ reactor vessel and direction of internal structure design improvement

A test program to quantify the reactor flow distribution has been performed using a test facility, named ACOP, having a 1/5 length scale referring to the APR+ reactor design. The flow characteristics of the prototype plant could be preserved by designing the test facility by adopting a linear reduced scaling principle. An Euler number is considered as a primary dimensionless parameter, which was preserved with a 1/41.0 Reynolds number scaling ratio based on the balanced flow conditions. The important measuring parameters are the core inlet flow, outlet pressure distribution, and sectional pressure drops along the major flow path inside the reactor vessel as well as static pressure and temperature at the vessel and boundary legs. The reactor flow distribution is identified by a series of three reactor flow balancing conditions: (1) balanced cold leg flow condition (2) 5% unbalanced cold leg flow condition, and (3) extreme unbalanced flow condition under the assumption of a single pump failure. This paper describes the design features for the test facility and the measuring method, and summarizes the reactor flow and pressure characteristics by ensemble averaging for each group of tests.     

Power peak factor for protection systems – Experimental data for developing a correlation

This paper aims to construct a data set that can be used to train neural networks to furnish the power density peak factor during reactor operation. The inputs considered were those available in the reactor protection systems, namely, the axial and quadrant power differences obtained from measured ex-core detector signals, and the position of control rods. The response of ex-core detector signals was measured in experiments performed in the IPEN/MB-01 zero-power reactor. Several reactor states with different power density distribution were obtained by positioning the control rods in different configurations. The power distribution and its peak factor were calculated for each of these reactor states. The obtained results show that the power peak factor correlates well with the control rod position and the quadrant power difference, and with a lesser degree with the axial power differences. The data presented an inherent organisation and could be classified into different classes of power peak factor behaviour as a function of position of control rods, axial power difference and quadrant power difference. The analysis of the data set indicates that the power peak factor can be determined through a neural network having as input the position of control rods. Regarding only signals of ex-core detectors, the data indicate that a neural network may estimate better the power peak factor if the input vector comprises both the axial and the quadrant power differences.     

Transient tests on blower trip and rod removal at the HTR-10

Safety demonstration tests on the 10 MW high temperature gas-cooled reactor test module (HTR-10) were conducted to verify the inherent safety features of MHTGRs and to obtain the core and primary cooling system transient data for validation of safety analysis codes.Two simulated anticipated transients without scram (ATWS) tests, lose of forced cooling by trip of the helium blower and reactivity insertion via control rod withdrawal were performed. This paper describes the tests with detailed test method, condition and results.Calculated results show that the strongly negative temperature coefficient causes reactor power to closely follow heat removal levels. Maximum fuel temperature changes are limited by the large core heat capacity to below 1230 °C during two tests.The test of tripping the helium circulator ATWS test was conducted on October 15, 2003. Although none of 10 control rods was moved, the reactor power immediately decreased due to the negative temperature coefficient. After about 50 min, the reactor became criticality again. Finally, the reactor power went to a stable level with about 200 kW.The test of reactivity insertion ATWS test was conducted two times. Following the control rod withdrawal, the reactor power increased rapidly, the maximum power level reached to 5037 and 7230 kW from the initial power of 3000 kW in accordance with reactivity insertion of $ 0.136 and 0.689, respectively. After the reactivity introduced was compensated by means of the strong negative reactivity feedback effect, the reactor went to subcritical and the power decreased.     

反应堆中子通量密度仿真研究

核电厂作为特殊企业,对职工的培训尤为重要,而培训中,仿真系统是必不可少的环节。强果用经典的点堆模型方程,仿真精度不够,不能实现物理仿真。本文利用因子分解方法解中子通量密度函数,在求解中子通量密度形状函数量,通过适当的模型简化,使其可以在一般的ＰＣ机上实现。     

A new method to predict Grid-To-Rod Fretting in a PWR fuel assembly inlet region

Grid-To-Rod Fretting (GTRF) is one of the main causes of leaking fuel in a Pressurized Water Reactor (PWR). GTRF is caused by grid-to-rod gap, secondary flow, and axial/lateral turbulence caused pressure fluctuations within the fuel assembly, which produces rod vibration and wear. The cross flow and vortex shedding phenomenon produce low frequency vibration forces on fuel rods. In some plants, leaking fuel has been detected at the fuel inlet region of fuel assembly designs that do not have Protective Grid (P-grid) which, in addition to providing debris protection, also provides lateral stability against vibration. In order to understand the root cause of the fuel leaks, a thorough investigation of the flow field at the fuel inlet region is required. Leaking fuel has also been detected in the fuel inlet region in transition cores. In the transitional core arrangement, there are different fuel assembly designs next to each other. Due to the structure difference, there will be cross flow between fuel assemblies, which may be the initiating factor for fuel leaks.A method based on Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) has been developed in Westinghouse to predict the GTRF in the fuel inlet region. The fuel inlet region consists of the lower core plate, the bottom nozzle, the fuel rods, the thimble rods, the P-grid, and the bottom grid. This study employed CFD to investigate the unsteady forces on the fuel rods under typical reactor in-core conditions. Two fuel assembly (FA) inlet regions with and without the P-grid were simulated. The time history of the unsteady force components on fuel rods was recorded. Fast Fourier Transform (FFT) analyses were carried out for the force history. Compared to the data from operating plants, the new method predicted synchronized excitation forces on the rods that leaked in real operation. The CFD results also demonstrated the advantage of using the P-grid. GTRF at the fuel inlet region can be significantly reduced when the P-grid is used in Westinghouse fuel assembly designs.     

The three-dimensional power distribution control in load following of the heating reactor

A new optimizing objective (three-dimensional power distribution control) for the load-following problem in nuclear reactor is presented. To realize such an objective, a combination of Harmonic Synthesis Method and Nodal Method has been practiced on the numeric calculation for optimizing problem on the 200 MW Heating Reactor, in which the control rods serve as the only control variables. In contrast, most of the load-following problems have been solved under a one-dimensional neutron model. And it seems that such a model is not suitable for the reactor core whose power was controlled only by control rods. In this case, the control rod causes a strong absorption of neutron in a local area thus makes the radial power distribution play a much more important role in the load-following process. As the 3-dimensional model is used and the corresponding method is performed, both of the total power level and power distribution are controlled well. For example, the power peak-factor is lower about 4% than that with one-dimensional method.     

Research on Segment Design of Control Rod in Sodium-cooled Fast Reactor

In sodium-cooled fast reactors, control rods are commonly used to compensate for the excess reactivity and shut down the reactor. The traditional sodium-cooled fast reactor design consists of the safety rod, shim rod and regulating rod. The 10B enrichment of the shim rods is relatively higher, which unavoidably increases the burnup, the heat generation and the power peak factor of the fuel assemblies around the shim rods. To solve this issue, the segment design of control rods was proposed. Compared with traditional design, the new design can significantly reduce the heat generation by about 30 percent and burnup of control rods by about 50 percent, as well as improve the power peak factor of the fuel assemblies around the shim rods. The replacement cycle of the control rods can be extended by time.     

钠冷快堆控制棒分段设计研究

在钠冷快堆中,反应堆运行时的反应性补偿和停堆安全主要由控制棒来实现。当前的钠冷快堆设计中,一般含有安全棒、补偿棒和调节棒。其中,补偿棒中10B的富集度较高,使补偿棒的燃耗较高,且发热量较大,并造成周围燃料组件功率峰因子偏大。本文提出一种分段设计方案,可用于改进上述缺点。该方案相比于传统方案,控制棒发热减小约30%,控制棒燃耗减小50%,并能有效改善周围燃料组件的功率峰因子,控制棒更换周期可提升1倍。     

Thermal mixing characteristics of helium gas in high-temperature gas-cooled reactor, (I) thermal mixing behavior of helium gas in HTTR

The future high-temperature gas-cooled reactor (HTGR) is now designed in Japan Atomic Energy Agency. The reactor has many merging points of helium gas with different temperatures. It is needed to clear the thermal mixing characteristics of helium gas at the pipe in the HTGR from the viewpoint of structure integrity and temperature control. Previously, the reactor inlet coolant temperature was controlled lower than specific one in the high-temperature engineering test reactor (HTTR) due to lack of mixing of helium gas in the primary cooling system. Now, the control system is improved to use the calculated bulk temperature of reactor inlet helium gas. In this paper, thermal–hydraulic analysis on the primary cooling system of the HTTR was conducted to clarify the thermal mixing behavior of helium gas. As a result, it was confirmed that the thermal mixing behavior is mainly affected by the aspect ratio of annular flow path, and it is needed to consider the mixing characteristics of helium gas at the piping design of the HTGR.     

Design,construction and simulation of a multipurpose system for precision movement of control rods in nuclear reactors

This article presents the design and implementation of a microcontroller-based system for the automatic movement of control rods in nuclear reactors of either power or research types. This system is controlled automatically, is linked to a personal computer system, and has manual controlling ability as well. The important features of this system are: automatic scram of the control rods, activation of alarm in emergency situations, and the ability to tune the control rod movement course both upwards and downwards. In this system, a small tank has been improvised as a coolant reservoir for pool type reactors such as Tehran Research Reactor and its water level is continuously adjusted by special sensors. Also, this system can be applied for controlling various types of control rods such as the regulating rods, safety rods and shim rods; can be connected to all reactor measurement tools and systems such as the period meter, power meter and flux meter; and can receive feedback signals from them. The devised system can be calibrated with these measurement tools by two special potentiometers in the related electronic board. The processes of this system have been simulated by the SIMULINK tool kit of MATLAB software and all responses of the system, including oscillation and transient responses, have been analyzed.     

200MW核供热堆两相流密度波不稳定性实验的Shannon信息熵特性研究

在200MW核供热堆热工实验台架上,利用信息论原理,研究两相流密度波不稳定性的Shannon信息熵特性。通过调节加热功率、运行压力和冷却剂入口过冷度,获得534种工况下加热流道入口压降的实验数据?计算不同工况下的Shannon信息熵,发现具有高的负Shannon信息熵(负熵)的实验工况是不稳定的,而具有低的负熵的实验工况是稳定的。负Shannon信息熵类似很多场合中使用的能量,可以成为衡量系统稳定性的尺度。     

Analysis of ABWR FW pump performance during power ascending and verification of an operational strategy to jump pump speed across the critical region with RELAP5-3D

The fourth nuclear power plant in Taiwan is an advanced boiling water reactor (ABWR) and is scheduled to be in commercial operation in late 2009. However, it is highly suspected by the reactor vendor that the turbine-driven reactor feedwater pumps (TDRFPs) are over designed. Consequently, the critical speed of TDRFP is likely to be encountered during power ascending. Besides, the original design speed of TDRFP also has to be reduced during normal operation by using oversized TDRFPs. Therefore, the design of FW control system needs to be accordingly revised based on a proper pump speed versus demand curve. To avoid unnecessary effort during pre-operation and/or power tests, a RELAP5-3D based plant integral model covering both reactor system and BOP systems was applied to simulate and analyze the behavior of the FW system during power ascending. By using the most advanced simulation technique, the performance of TDRFPs during power ascending was calculated, and the low power interval correspondent to the range of critical speed (2400–2800 rpm) was identified. Moreover, an operational strategy proposed by plant operators to jump TDRFP across the critical speed range during power ascending was also quantitatively verified. It was found that increasing the bypass flow of either condensate pump or condensate booster pump is the most efficient and practical approach to jump the TDRFP across the critical speed interval. The successful application of the RELAP5 for the entire BOP simulation indicates that the advanced RELAP5 can extend its traditional reactor safety analysis to the entire power conversion system simulation and analysis.     

反应堆物理启动提棒外推临界修正方法

反应堆物理启动提棒外推临界时,外推临界曲线常出现外凸现象。若按此曲线外推,将导致超临界。本文分析了出现这种现象的原因,引入一种外推临界修正方法,并进行了实例计算。与实际反应堆物理启动参数进行的比较表明：此方法较好地改善了曲线外凸现象,按修正后的曲线进行临界外推,可降低反应堆启动期间出现超临界现象的风险。